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Very often people ask the question: how does this or that event happen - by chance or by necessity? Some argue that only chance prevails in the world and there is no place for necessity, while others - that there is no chance at all and everything happens out of necessity. However, in our opinion, it is impossible to unequivocally answer this question, because both chance and necessity have their own share of the “right” to being. What is meant by both concepts?

Let's start with the notion of "coincidence". Randomness is a type of connection that is due to insignificant, external, incidental reasons for this phenomenon. As a rule, such a relationship is unstable. In other words, randomness is subjectively unexpected, objectively incidental phenomena, it is something that under given conditions may or may not be, it may happen this way, or it may happen otherwise.

There are several types of randomness:

External. It is beyond the power of this necessity. It is determined by the circumstances. A man stepped on a watermelon peel and fell. There is a reason for the fall. But it does not follow from the logic of the actions of the victim. Here there is a sudden intrusion into the life of blind chance.

Internal. This randomness follows from the very nature of the object, it is, as it were, “swirls” of necessity. Randomness is considered as internal if the situation of the birth of a random phenomenon is described from within any one causal series, and the cumulative effect of other causal sequences is described through the concept of “objective conditions” for the implementation of the main causal series.

Subjective, that is, one that arises as a result of a person having free will when he performs an act contrary to objective necessity.

Objective. The denial of objective randomness is false and harmful from both scientific and practical points of view. Recognizing everything as equally necessary, a person is unable to separate the essential from the non-essential, the necessary from the accidental. In this view, necessity itself is reduced to the level of chance.

So, in short, random is possible under appropriate conditions. It opposes the natural as necessary in the appropriate conditions. Necessity is a natural type of connection between phenomena, determined by their stable internal basis and the totality of the essential conditions for their emergence, existence and development. Necessity, therefore, is a manifestation, a moment of regularity, and in this sense it is a synonym for it. Since regularity expresses the general, essential in a phenomenon, necessity is inseparable from the essential. If the accidental has a cause in another - in the intersection of various series of cause-and-effect relationships, then the necessary has a cause in itself.

Necessity, like chance, can be external and internal, that is, generated by the object's own nature or by a combination of external circumstances. It can be characteristic of many objects or only for a single object. Necessity is an essential feature of the law. Like a law, it can be dynamic or static.

Necessity and contingency act as correlative categories in which philosophical reflection the nature of the interdependence of phenomena, the degree of determinism of their occurrence and existence. The necessary makes its way through the accidental. Why? Because it is realized only through the singular. And in this sense, randomness is correlated with singularity. It is accidents that influence the course of the necessary process: they speed it up or slow it down. Thus, chance is in manifold connections with necessity, and the boundary between chance and necessity is never closed. However, the main direction of development determines precisely the need.

Accounting for the dialectics of necessity and chance is an important condition for correct practical and theoretical activity. The main goal of cognition is to reveal the regular. In our ideas, the world is revealed as an infinite variety of things and events, colors and sounds, other properties and relationships. But in order to understand it, it is necessary to identify a certain order. And for this it is necessary to analyze those specific forms of chance in which the necessary is manifested.

People have long been interested in the question of what necessarily happens in nature and people's lives, and what does not. These reflections gave rise to the problem of the relationship between necessity and chance. Need - this is what necessarily, certainly happens in these conditions, and accident - this is something that may or may not happen under these conditions.

The difference between necessity and chance is that that the causes of necessity are rooted in the essence of a given object, and the causes of chance lie outside - in external conditions that are formed mainly independently of this object. When internal and external cause-and-effect relationships intersect, then an event occurs that is random in relation to this object.

For example, a person was going to work and, while crossing the street, had an accident. The fact that he went to work is a necessity, but that he was a victim of an accident is an accident, since the failure of the brakes and driving at a red light (the cause of the accident) arose independently of him.

The denial of the objective existence of contingencies is false and methodologically harmful. Recognizing everything as equally necessary, man cannot separate the essential from the non-essential. In this view, necessity itself is reduced to the level of chance.

If Spinoza, Holbach and others absolutized the role of necessity, then Schopenhauer, Nietzsche and other irrationalists believed that everything in the world is random and unpredictable.

In fact, there is both necessity and chance in the world. They do not exist in their pure form, according to dialectics, every phenomenon, every process is a unity of necessity and chance. There are no completely necessary or completely random phenomena, each of them contains both the moment of the necessary and the moment of the accidental. Take, for example, such an event as marriage. The fact that a young man enters into marriage is a necessity due to his spiritual and physiological needs. And the fact that he marries this particular girl is already an accident. If we admitted that this moment is also a necessity, then we would be forced to conclude that someone has distributed who should marry whom, and is monitoring the strict execution of this. There is nothing of the kind, of course. If the young man did not meet this girl, then he could marry another, not any, but corresponding to his ideal. But the meeting of a girl who meets his ideal is a matter of chance and depends on external circumstances. When we consider an event as a whole, then it appears as a unity of necessity and chance, but when we fix a certain relationship in which the event is considered, we must say with complete certainty whether this moment is necessary or accidental. Otherwise, dialectics will be replaced by eclecticism - a mechanical combination of opposites.

Necessity as a regularity of an object is manifested in its interaction with external conditions.

The connection between necessity and chance can be expressed by two principles:

1) necessity is revealed only through a mass of accidents,

2) chance is a form of manifestation of necessity. For example, the pressure of a gas on the walls of a vessel is a necessity, but it is realized through a lot of accidents - impacts of individual molecules.

In the process of development, chance can turn into necessity. An example is biological evolution, which is the total transformation of chance into necessity: beneficial mutations that are random in nature accumulate in the course of natural selection, become the property of the species and are passed on to subsequent generations.

Ticket number 6

Philosophy of Aristotle.

According to Aristotle, all things, processes and phenomena exist due to four principles, or reasons.

The first one- formal reason, or form. He called form the essence of being of every thing.

The second beginning of the world- material cause, or matter. He distinguished the first matter - a completely unformed, structureless mass and the last matter in the form of 4 elements - water, air, fire and earth - already slightly formed, arising from the primary matter and serving directly as material for things.

third beginning of the world- the target, or final, reason, answering the question "for what?" Aristotle believed that everything in nature and society is carried out for the sake of some purpose. This mindset is called teleological.

Fourth principle Aristotle finds in the driving cause. He denies self-movement, and believes that what is moving should be set in motion only by something external. Some bodies move others, and God is the prime mover.

According to Aristotle, a thing has all four causes, and in human activity there are all four causes. But he was wrong in that this applies to the whole world and all its processes. Here Aristotle allowed anthropomorphism- the transfer of properties inherent in man to bodies and natural phenomena.

All 4 reasons, according to Aristotle, are eternal. But are they reducible to each other? The material cause is not reducible to others. And the formal, motive and target causes are ultimately reduced to one, and God serves as such a triune cause. Aristotle coined the term theology- Teachings about God.

YOU CAN NOT SPEAK . (Thus, in general, the teachings of Aristotle are objective idealism and this is idealism of a dualistic persuasion (i.e., 2 principles, matter and form)).

FOR THE VOLUME YOU CAN SAY IT! (In his cosmological views, Aristotle stood on the positionsgeocentrism. The cosmos, like the Earth, is spherical in shape. It consists of many shells to which celestial bodies are attached, the closest is the sphere of the moon, then the sun, then the planets and then the sphere of the stars. All celestial bodies consist of ether - the matter of the supralunar spheres; ether is the 5th element that does not exist on earth).

Aristotle used his doctrine of form and matter in psychology: the soul is a form in relation to the body, animates it and sets it in motion. The soul is the mediator between God and matter. Souls are inherent in plants, animals and people. The soul has three parts: vegetative or vegetable (the ability to eat), animal or sensual (the ability to feel), rational (the ability to know). Plants have only the first part, animals have the first and second, man has all three. This teaching of Aristotle contains a deep conjecture about the stages of evolution of the property of reflection (irritability - psyche - consciousness). The vegetative and animal parts of the soul depend on the body and are mortal, while the rational part of the soul, according to Aristotle, does not depend on the body, is immortal and is connected with God, who is pure reason.

In their epistemological views Aristotle did not deny the importance of sensory knowledge, moreover, he correctly considered it the beginning of all knowledge. In general, the process of cognition, according to Aristotle, includes the following steps: sensation and sensory perception, experience, art, science, which serves as the pinnacle of knowledge. In the teachings of Aristotle, for the first time, there was a tendency to understand the unity of the sensual and the rational in cognition.

The main thing in the ethical and political views of Aristotle was the definition of man as a social animal endowed with reason. The main difference between a man and an animal is the ability for intellectual life and the acquisition of virtue. Only man is capable of perceiving such concepts as good and evil, justice and injustice, wrote Aristotle. He correctly believed that a person from birth does not have virtues (positive qualities), by nature he is only given the opportunity to acquire them.

Aristotle distinguished between intellectual and ethical virtues. To the first he attributed: wisdom, prudence, to the second - courage, justice, generosity, honesty, generosity. The first virtues are acquired through training, the second through education. Aristotle rightly disputed the opinion of Socrates that supposedly no one, having knowledge of the good, would act badly. It is one thing to have knowledge of the good, and another thing to want to use it. The task of education is precisely to translate moral knowledge into inner conviction and action.

Aristotle's doctrine of man is aimed at putting the individual at the service of the state. In his opinion, a person is born as a political being and carries within himself an instinctive desire for "joint cohabitation." The decisive role, according to Aristotle, in political life plays the virtue of justice. Aristotle did not accept Plato's "ideal state", noting that the whole cannot be happy if all its parts are unhappy. According to Aristotle, not only a person should serve the state, but vice versa.

Aristotle distinguished between three good and three bad forms of the state, the latter appearing as deformations of the former. AT good shape government is carried out within the framework of the law, and in bad ones it is not. Good he considered the monarchy, the aristocracy; the bad ones are tyranny (which arose as a deformation of the monarchy), oligarchy (the deformation of the aristocracy) and extreme democracy (the deformation of the polity).

sensual and rational knowledge. Sensationalism and Rationalism.

A person has three main ways of comprehending the world - sensual, rational and intuitive knowledge. The starting point of the general cognitive process is sense cognition. It is carried out with the help of analyzers. A person has 9 analyzers. In addition to the well-known visual, auditory, tactile, gustatory, olfactory, there are also temperature, kinesthetic, vestibular and visceral analyzers. For example, a temperature analyzer, with the help of its receptors located in the skin, oral cavity and internal organs, provides information about the temperature of external objects and the body itself.

The possibilities of sensory reflection are expanded with the help of instruments, the role of which in cognition and practice is constantly growing. There are several types. Measuring devices(scales, ruler) give a quantitative measure to those parameters that are perceived by the analyzers, but are not measured, since the sense organs are deprived of a standard for comparison. Amplifiers(glasses, microscope, sound amplifier) ​​display objects that are not perceived or poorly perceived by unarmed analyzers due to their low sensitivity. Converters(ammeter, radiometer, cloud chamber) transform the impact of objects (for example, radioactive radiation), for the perception of which a person does not have sense organs, into a form suitable for perception (most often into indications on scales and dials). Analyzers(electrocardiograph) reveal the structure and components of the object or process under study.

Sensations serve as the initial form of sensory cognition. Examples of sensations: red, blue, bitter, warm, soft, etc. Feeling is a reflection of a separate (one) property of an object. Another form of sensory knowledge perception , which is a holistic image of an object acting on the senses. The third form of sensory knowledge is performance. It is a trace of perception, a holistic sensory image of an object, stored in memory after the action of the object on the sense organs. A person has the ability to operate with ideas, combine them and create new images. This ability is called visual-figurative thinking, or imagination.

The second way to comprehend the world is rational knowledge. It is also called abstract thinking, reason, sometimes intellect. It is a generalized and indirect reflection of being in the form of a system of concepts that provides, on the basis of sensory data, the disclosure of causes and laws. The basic forms of rational knowledge are concepts, judgments and inferences.

concept - a thought that reflects the general and essential properties of a class of objects or phenomena. According to the degree of generality (in terms of volume), concepts are less general, more general, extremely general (table - furniture - material object). Unlike sensations, perceptions and representations, concepts are devoid of visibility or sensibility. . Judgments and inferences are forms of cognition in which concepts move. In order to correctly reproduce the world, it is necessary to connect concepts in such a way as the objects displayed by them are interconnected. This happens in judgments and inferences. Judgment - this is a thought in which, through the connection of concepts, something is affirmed or denied about something. Judgments are divided into affirmative and negative. . inference - this is a thought, during which a new judgment (conclusion) is obtained from several existing judgments (premises).

Inferences serve as the highest form of rational knowledge, since it is with their help that new knowledge is acquired on the basis of existing knowledge without resorting to sensory experience. Representations, concepts, judgments and conclusions can form an integral system of knowledge - a theory that is designed to describe and explain a certain sphere of being. Concepts expressed in scientific terms constitute the categorical apparatus of the theory, judgments form the principles and laws of the theory, inferences are ways to substantiate knowledge in it with the help of inference, and representations serve as visual models (for example, a model of a cell, an atom, etc.).

The history of European philosophy has been marked by a dispute between sensationalism and rationalism. Proponents of sensationalism recognized sensory knowledge as the main and even the only source of knowledge. Behind thinking, sensualists recognized only the function of summing up and ordering sensory data.

Rationalists, on the contrary, exaggerated, and in some cases absolutized the role of reason in cognition. They considered the results of sensory experience to be either untrue knowledge or an occasion for real knowledge.

From a dialectical point of view, the question of which knowledge is more important - sensual or rational - is incorrect. The only legitimate question is about the functions of these two modes of cognition. Aggregate knowledge has as its source both sensory and rational knowledge. The primary of these is sensory knowledge - sensations and perceptions. This is the only connection of consciousness with the outside world. Without it, knowledge would not have begun at all. On the basis of sensory data, thinking through inferences forms a new, deeper knowledge - knowledge about microstructures, causes, laws, objects that are not perceived in sensations. Thus, sensual and rational are two necessary and complementary ways of knowing the world.

Ticket number 7

Philosophy Ancient China(Taoism, Confucianism).

One of the 2 main philosophical teachings in ancient China taoism, founded by Laozi. The central concept of this doctrine is dao. Tao is the Great Path for Cosmos, Earth and Man. At the same time, Tao is the source, the root of everything that exists. Tao exists everywhere and in everything. By itself, Tao is not perceived by a person, but it is embodied in things, objects, plants, animals, people, etc. Thus, the world around us, the sensory world, is the embodiment of the Tao, the Chinese called it "de".

Te is directly perceived by the senses. In general, the world is a unity of Tao and Te. Tao is comprehended not by the senses, but by the mind, thinking. To know the Tao means to comprehend the laws of nature and learn to conform to them.

Taoists in ancient times felt the possibility of a conflict between society and nature. Therefore, their main life principle was the principle wu wei - principle following the Tao, i.e. behavior that is consistent with the nature of man and the universe. Wu wei is a behavior that is based on the use of the natural properties of things and processes and does not include violence, damage to nature. It is a way of living in harmony with the world. Any action that is contrary to the Tao means a waste of energy and leads to failure and even death. Taoism called for an organic merger with nature. This teaching had a great impact on the culture of China, especially on its art.

If Taoism considered mainly the relationship of man to the whole world and to nature, then the second influential teaching in Chinese philosophy – Confucianism - put the main subject of the relationship of man to society, the state and the family. The founder of this doctrine was Confucius. Initial for Confucius was the concept of "heaven" and "heavenly decree". With a dream to streamline the life of society, Confucius creates his own teaching.

An important part of it is the idea of ​​a "noble husband" - the ideal of a person - Jun Tzu. The latter must have two important qualities: humanity and sense of duty. He must be kind and just towards the inferior, respectful towards the elders and superiors.

Confucius considered the basis of humanity "xiao" – filial piety. Here Confucianism relied on China's oldest ancestral cult. The meaning of xiao is that a respectful son should take care of his parents all his life, honor and love them under any circumstances.

The success of Confucianism was largely due to the fact that Confucius, dreaming of "rallying the Celestial Empire into one family", proposed to extend the principles of relations in a large complex family to the whole society and to implement this with the help of ritualized etiquette - "Is it right?"

One of the foundations of social order, according to Confucius, is strict obedience to elders. Any elder, be it a father, an official, a sovereign, is an indisputable authority for a younger, subordinate, subject. Blind obedience to his will and word is an elementary norm for juniors and subordinates, both in the state and in the family. However, this did not mean that the "senior" could allow arbitrariness and injustice.

After the death of its founder, Confucianism broke up into 8 schools, importance of which they had two. One of them is the Mengzi school. gravitating towards idealism. His innovation was the thesis about the initially good nature of man, who is given by Heaven (innate) philanthropy, justice, good manners, knowledge of goodness. Heaven determines the fate of people and the state, the emperor is the son of Heaven. Education will allow a person to know himself, Heaven and serve him. In his concept of humane governance of the country Mengzi substantiated the idea of ​​the dominant role of the people in society and the subordinate role of the ruler, which the people have the right to remove if he does not meet the necessary requirements.

The founder of another school - Xunzi, gravitating towards materialism, considered Heaven not as the supreme ruler and manager, but as a set of natural phenomena. Xunzi rejected the existence of a world creator, he believed that the emergence and change of all phenomena occurs in accordance with natural laws in a circle and is explained by the interaction of two forces: positive - "yang" and negative - "yin".

The actions of people, according to Xunzi, are not determined by the will of heaven, it does not exist in reality, everything depends on the people themselves. Man, according to Xunzi, is evil by nature, he is born envious and malicious; it is necessary to influence him with the help of education and the law, and then he will become virtuous.

Confucianism has strengths and weaknesses. The latter lies in the excessive conservatism of the doctrine, which prevents the formation of new, more expedient, forms of life. Its strength lies in the fact that it carries many healthy moral principles: devotion to one's family and people, respect for parents and elders, generosity, truthfulness, diligence, humanity.

Medicine as a science, its main categories (norm, pathology, health, disease).

The medicine - this is a system of knowledge about the relationship between the processes of normal and pathological life of the body and the personality of a person; this knowledge is used to diagnose, treat, prevent diseases and improve people's health.

The task of medicine- do not allow the disease to turn into reality.

Basic functions of medicine. Initially, during the birth of medicine, it performed 2 functions - diagnosis and treatment of diseases. When medicine became an already developed science, it had a 3rd function - the prevention (prevention) of diseases and the promotion of health.

Interpretation norms was different at different times.

1) In the Middle Ages, the norm was understood as such indicators of the body, which are due to the world mind. It was believed that the world mind serves as the creator of the entire surrounding world, it harmonizes it, establishes the right relationships in everything, including in the human body.

2) In the 1st half of the 20th century, the concept of the norm changed: the norm is such indicators of the body that the medical community agreed to consider normal, i.e. the norm is the result of an agreement between physicians. But objectively (i.e., regardless of the consciousness of doctors), the norm, according to conventionalism, does not exist.

3) Now the dialectical-materialistic interpretation of the norm has become predominant. With this interpretation, it is believed that the norm has an objective character, and its essence is revealed on the basis of the dialectical law of the transition of quantity into quality and the philosophical category of measure.

4) In biology and medicine, the philosophical category of measure corresponds to the concept of norm. Norm- this is a measure of health, the interval of changes in body indicators, which is characteristic of a state of health. Measure this is the interval of quantitative changes in which this quality is preserved. When the indicators go beyond the norm, this already indicates that the state of health has changed into a state of illness.

The practical establishment of the norm is a very difficult problem. This is due, firstly, to the fact that the norm is individual, and the norm of one person may or may not coincide with the norm of another. And, secondly, the norm is changeable: for the same person, it can change depending on age, previous diseases, nutrition, and other components of lifestyle.

Currently, they still use the average norm for all people. Deviation of the indicator from the norm is a pathology, a symptom of the disease.

Pathology- this is the interval of changes in body indicators, characteristic of the state of the disease.

Life exists in two forms - in the form health and form disease. The World Health Organization (WHO) defines health as a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Can be defined health as a state in which the indicators of the body and personality correspond to the norm. Such a definition is correct, but too poor: it does not say what this state consists of.

A richer definition of health can be given if we use Marx’s idea that “illness is a life constrained in its freedom”, and also take into account that activity serves as a way of human existence. It is through various activities that a person performs his social functions - the functions of training, advanced training, self-improvement; labor functions; parent functions; civil, marital and friendly functions.

In view of the foregoing, we can give the following definition: health is such a state of the body and personality, in which their indicators correspond to the norm, and a person can fully perform his social functions.

Ticket number 8

(Additional material within)

Necessity and contingency are the most important categories of dialectics.

In pre-Marxist philosophy, the problem of the relationship between necessity and chance was solved one-sidedly. Philosophers-materialists and determinists (Democritus, Spinoza, French materialists of the 18th century) usually believed that everything in nature has its own cause, therefore everything is necessary and there are no accidents. Accident, in their opinion, people call that the reason for which they do not know. But as soon as a seemingly random phenomenon has a cause, it ceases to be so. The materialists defended the dominance of necessity, and this point of view was progressive.

Philosophers-idealists, who stood on the positions of indeterminism, argued that phenomena are not causally determined and therefore there is no necessity in nature and society, but chance prevails. Many of them believed that everything happens as a result of the manifestation of "free will" and the desire of people.

Deterministic metaphysicians were closer to the truth, but they also made serious mistakes in understanding the relationship between necessity and chance. They identified necessity with causality, while these are not at all the same thing. Suffice it to say that not only necessity but also chance is causally determined, and for this reason alone the identification of necessity with causality is unjustified. In addition, metaphysical determinists separated necessity and chance from each other and opposed them to each other. They believed that where there is a need, there can be no chance, and where there is a chance, there is no need. In fact, necessity and chance interconnected, and it is possible to understand them correctly only by considering them in unity, in interdependence.

The objective world is dominated by necessity - the inevitable course of development of phenomena, arising from their essence and conditioned by all their previous development and interaction. The category of necessity expresses the natural nature of the development of nature and society.

However, dialectical materialism recognizes the existence of chance. Considering randomness, one can single out a number of features inherent in it.

First, random phenomena, like necessary ones, have their causes. It is wrong to think that chance and causelessness are one and the same. Causeless phenomena do not exist at all.

Secondly, chance is objective. Its existence does not depend on whether we know its causes or not. The denial of the objective nature of chance leads to a confusion of important and insignificant factors of development. The history of society and the life of an individual acquire in this case a fatal, mystical character.

Third, randomness is relative. There is no absolute chance, there are no such phenomena that would be random in all respects and would not be connected with necessity. A random phenomenon is not absolutely random, but only in relation to a certain regular connection. In another connection, the same phenomenon may be necessary. So, from the point of view of the general course of the development of science, it is by chance that it was this scientist who made this or that discovery. But this discovery is the necessary result of a certain level of development of the productive forces, of the progress of science itself; it is also necessary in relation to the talent, interests and purposeful work of the scientist himself.

Very often, randomness occurs when two or more necessary connections collide. Consider, for example, the case where a tree is felled by a storm. A strong wind in relation to the life of a tree is accidental, since it does not inevitably follow from the essence of the life and growth of a tree. However, in relation to meteorological factors, the wind is a necessary phenomenon, since its occurrence is due to certain laws of action of these factors. At the point of intersection of these two necessary processes - the life of a tree and the emergence of wind - an accident appeared. At the same time, not only the wind is random for a tree, but also for the wind it is random where and what kind of tree it meets on its way.

This means that chance is something external in relation to a given phenomenon or process, and therefore it is possible for it, but not obligatory, it may or may not exist.

Accident- this is such an objective phenomenon that has a basis and a reason, but not in the essence of this process, but in other processes, and follows not from internal, but from external, insignificant connections.

As already mentioned, necessity and chance are closely related. This connection lies primarily in the fact that one and the same phenomenon appears in one respect as accidental, and in another - as necessary. But this connection does not end there. Chance is an addition and a form of manifestation of necessity. This position, expressed by F. Engels, expresses another deep side of the relationship between necessity and chance.

Upon closer examination, it turns out that "pure" necessity, without accidents, does not exist in objective reality and cannot exist. Necessity always manifests itself through accidents, pushes its way through a mass of accidents, as something stable, repetitive. For example, community development consists of the activities of many people with a variety of aspirations, goals, characters. The interweaving, crossing and collision of all these strivings eventually leads to a certain line of development, which has a strictly necessary character. And where there is a game of chance on the surface, there this chance itself always turns out to be subject to internal, hidden laws.

Chance always accompanies and supplements necessity, and therefore plays a certain role in historical process. This, along with other reasons, explains the fact that the same laws of social development in different countries perform at various times special forms, act with a variety of shades. If only necessity existed, and chances did not play any role, history, K. Marx noted, would have a very mystical character.

From the fact that necessity can manifest itself only through accidents, it follows that accidents not only complement necessity, but also represent form of its manifestation. This is very essential for understanding the dialectics of necessity and chance. For example, such a necessary process as the growth of a wild plant appears in the form of a series of random moments. What is random here is where and when the seed falls into the ground, under what conditions it finds itself, etc. Another example can be cited in the same connection. It is known that the movement of gas molecules in a closed vessel is chaotic. What kind of molecule, where and when will collide with the walls of the vessel - all this is random. But although the impacts of individual molecules on the walls of the vessel are random, in general, their movement obeys a certain law, according to which the pressure of the gas on any square centimeter of the area of ​​the walls of the vessel is always the same and is transmitted uniformly in all directions. Thus, here we see that accidents (collisions of individual molecules with the walls of the vessel) act as a form of manifestation of necessity, expressed in this law.

The same is true in public life. The implementation of regular social phenomena, for example, social revolutions, is associated with many random circumstances, such as the place and time of certain events, the circle of people who find themselves at the head of the movement, etc. These circumstances are accidental in relation to historical development, but precisely Through them necessary processes are carried out.

The connection between necessity and chance is also manifested in the fact that in the process of development, the random can become necessary, and the necessary - random. For example, the exchange of goods under the conditions of the primitive communal system was of an accidental nature and did not follow from the economic laws of this social system. Under capitalism, the exchange of goods becomes a necessary phenomenon and expresses the essence of the prevailing economic relations. Natural economy, necessary in feudal society, under capitalism is transformed into a single, accidental phenomenon.

In a socialist and communist society, where social development proceeds according to plan, favorable conditions arise which make it possible to significantly limit the effects of undesirable accidents. Thus, the introduction of scientific agricultural technology, extensive land reclamation and other measures significantly limit the negative impact of weather accidents on agriculture.

Science does not ignore accidents, but studies them, on the one hand, in order to foresee the possibility of undesirable accidents and prevent or limit them, and on the other, in order to use positive accidents. But the main goal of science is to see laws behind accidents, to recognize necessity. Knowledge of the laws makes it possible to manage natural and social processes, to scientifically foresee their course, and it is expedient to change them in the direction necessary for human society.

In preparing this article, the “Elementary Course in Philosophy (for students of schools of the foundations of Marxism-Leninism)”, M., ed. "Thought", 1966

See K. Marx and F. Engels. Works, vol. 39, p. 175

See K. Marx and F. Engels. Works, vol. 21, p. 306

NECESSITY AND RANDOMNESS - philosophical categories reflecting various types of connections of objects and phenomena with each other.Need- this is an internal, essential connection arising from the fundamental features of the phenomenon; something that must happen under certain conditions. Randomness, however, has an external character in relation to this phenomenon.

It is due to side factors that are not related to the essence of this phenomenon. This is something that under the given conditions may or may not happen, it may happen in this way, or it may happen in another way. If there were one chance in the world, then it would be chaotic, disordered, as a result of which it would be impossible to foresee the course of events. And vice versa, if all objects and phenomena developed only in the necessary way, then development would acquire a mystical, predetermined character.(Fatalism). Each phenomenon is formed under the influence of not only essential, necessary, but also random, insignificant causes. Therefore necessity and contingency do not exist without each other; they represent an indivisible dialectical unity. The same phenomenon, accidental in one respect, appears as necessary in another. A storm that breaks trees in a forest is an accidental cause of their death, but it is at the same time a necessary consequence of certain meteorological conditions. Necessity does not exist in a "pure form", it manifests itself through chance. In turn, chance acts as a form of manifestation of necessity and its complement; it gives the phenomenon a certain originality, specificity, unique features. Animals belonging to a certain species have common (species) characteristics that have arisen in the process of long-term historical development and inherited. But these necessary features always exist in an individual form, since animals differ in color, shape, size, etc. Some of these characters, initially random for a given species, are fixed in the course of development, inherited and become necessary, and those of the necessary traits that turn out to be inappropriate in a different situation disappear, appearing in subsequent generations only in the form of a rudiment, that is, an accidental trait. Thus chance turns into necessity, and vice versa, necessity turns into chance. All new facts confirming the deep relationship between necessity and chance gives modern science. Physics, for example, studies objects (elementary particles, atoms, molecules), the position of which at any given moment can be determined only with a certain degree of probability. At the same time, there is no pure chance here. In the chaotic movement, for example, of molecules in a vessel with a liquid, a necessity, a regularity, is manifested. It is not individual molecules that obey it, but their totality, which behaves in a strictly defined way. Understanding the dialectics of necessity and chance is very important for the cognitive and practical activities of people. The task of science is to discover the necessary connections between phenomena. Since chance is a form of manifestation of necessity, cognition must follow the path of distinguishing the necessary, the essential from the accidental, the inessential. This makes it possible to foresee the further course of a particular natural or social process and direct it in the direction that is desirable for the interests of society.