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The first ever meeting between the Pope of Rome and the Patriarch of Moscow took place only in February 2016 on neutral Cuban territory. The phenomenal event was preceded by failures, mutual suspicions, centuries of hostility and attempts to reduce everything to peace. Separation christian church into the Catholic and Orthodox branches was due to disagreements in the interpretation of the "Symbol of Faith". So because of a single word, according to which the Son of God became another source of the Holy Spirit, the church was divided into two parts. Less than preceded the Great Schism, which eventually led to the current state of affairs.

The split of the church in 1054: the reasons for the division of Christians

Ritual traditions and views on dogmatic principles in Rome and Constantinople began to gradually differ long before the final separation. In the past, communication between states was not so active, and each church developed in its own direction.

1. The first prerequisites for a split began in 863. For several years, Orthodox and Catholics have been in opposition. The events went down in history as the Photius Schism. The two ruling church leaders wanted to divide the land, but did not agree. The official reason was doubts about the legitimacy of the election of Patriarch Photius.
2. Ultimately, both religious leaders anathematized each other. Communication between the heads of Catholics and Orthodox was resumed only in 879 at the Fourth Council of Constantinople, which is now not recognized by the Vatican.
3. In 1053, another formal reason for the future Great Schism clearly stood out - the dispute about unleavened bread. The Orthodox used leavened bread for the sacrament of the Eucharist, while the Catholics used unleavened bread.
4. In 1054, Pope Leo XI sent Cardinal Humbert to Constantinople. The reason was the closing of the Latin churches in the capital of Orthodoxy that happened a year earlier. The Holy Gifts were thrown away and trampled underfoot because of the insipid way of making bread.
5. The papal claims to the lands were substantiated by a forged document. The Vatican was interested in receiving military support from Constantinople, and this was the main reason for the pressure exerted on the Patriarch.
6. After the death of Pope Leo XI, his legates nevertheless decided to excommunicate and depose the leader of the Orthodox. The retaliatory measures were not long in coming: four days later they themselves were anathematized by the Patriarch of Constantinople.

The split of Christianity into Orthodoxy and Catholicism: results

It seemed impossible to anathematize half of the Christians, but the then religious leaders saw this as acceptable. Only in 1965 did Pope Paul VI and Ecumenical Patriarch Athenagoras abolish the mutual excommunication of churches.

After another 51 years, the leaders of the divided churches met in person for the first time. The ingrained differences were not so strong that the religious leaders could not be under the same roof.

• A millennial existence without reference to the Vatican has reinforced the separation of the two approaches to Christian history and worship of God.
• The Orthodox Church never became one: there are many organizations in different countries led by their Patriarchs.
• Catholic leaders realized that neither subjugating nor destroying the offshoot would work. They acknowledged the vastness new religion equal to their own.

The split of Christianity into Orthodoxy and Catholicism did not prevent believers from glorifying the Creator. Let the representatives of one denomination pronounce perfectly and recognize dogmas that are unacceptable to another. Sincere love for God has no religious boundaries. Let Catholics dip babies at baptism once, and Orthodox three times. Little things of this kind matter only in mortal life. Having appeared before the Lord, everyone will be responsible for their actions, and not for the design of the temple they visited earlier. There are many things that unite Catholics and Orthodox. First of all, it is the Word of Christ, which is followed with humility in the soul. It is easy to find heresy, it is more difficult to understand and forgive, to see in everyone - the creation of God and his neighbor. The main purpose of the Church is to be a shepherd for the people and a shelter for the destitute.

The persecution experienced by Christianity in the first centuries of its existence left a deep imprint on its worldview and spirit. Persons who suffered imprisonment and torture for their faith (confessors) or who were executed (martyrs) began to be revered in Christianity as saints. In general, the ideal of a martyr becomes central in Christian ethics.

The conditions of the era and culture changed the political and ideological context of Christianity, and this caused a number of church divisions- schism. As a result, competing varieties of Christianity appeared - "creeds". So, in 311, Christianity becomes officially permitted, and by the end of the 4th century under Emperor Constantine - the dominant religion, under the tutelage of state power. However, the gradual weakening of the Western Roman Empire eventually ended in its collapse. This contributed to the fact that the influence of the Roman bishop (pope), who took over the functions of the secular ruler, increased significantly. Already in the 5th - 7th centuries, in the course of the so-called Christological disputes, which clarified the relationship between the divine and human principles in the person of Christ, the Christians of the East separated from the imperial church: monophists, etc. In 1054, the separation of the Orthodox and Catholic churches took place, which was based on the conflict the Byzantine theology of the sacred power - the position of church hierarchs subordinate to the monarch - and the Latin theology of the universal papacy, which sought to subjugate secular power.

After the death under the onslaught of the Turks - the Ottomans of Byzantium in 1453, Russia turned out to be the main stronghold of Orthodoxy. However, disputes over the norms of ritual practice led here in the 17th century to a schism, as a result of which the Old Believers separated from the Orthodox Church.

In the West, during the Middle Ages, the ideology and practice of the papacy aroused increasing protest both from the secular elite (especially the German emperors) and from the lower classes of society (the Lollard movement in England, the Hussites in the Czech Republic, etc.). By the beginning of the 16th century, this protest took shape in the Reformation movement.

Orthodoxy - one of the three main directions of Christianity - historically developed, formed as its eastern branch. It is distributed mainly in the countries of Eastern Europe, the Middle East, and the Balkans. The name "Orthodoxy" (from the Greek word "orthodoxy") is first encountered by Christian writers of the 2nd century. The theological foundations of Orthodoxy were formed in Byzantium, where it was the dominant religion in the 4th-11th centuries.

Holy Scripture (the Bible) and sacred tradition (the decision of the seven Ecumenical Councils IV-VIII centuries, as well as the works of major church authorities, such as Athanasius of Alexandria, Basil the Great, Gregory the Theologian, John of Damascus, John Chrysostom). It fell to these Fathers of the Church to formulate the basic tenets of the creed.

In the Creed adopted at the Nicene and Constantinople ecumenical councils, these foundations of the doctrine are formulated in 12 parts or terms.

In the further philosophical and theoretical development of Christianity, the teaching of Blessed Augustine played a significant role. At the turn of the 5th century, he preached the superiority of faith over knowledge. Reality, according to his teaching, is incomprehensible to the human mind, since behind its events and phenomena the will of the almighty Creator is hidden. Augustine's teaching on predestination said that anyone who believes in God can enter the sphere of the "elect" who are predestined for salvation. For faith is the criterion of predestination.

An important place in Orthodoxy is occupied by sacramental rites, during which, according to the teachings of the church, a special grace descends on the believers. The Church recognizes seven sacraments:

Baptism is a sacrament in which a believer, when the body is immersed three times in water with the invocation of God the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit, acquires a spiritual birth.

In the sacrament of chrismation, the believer is given the gifts of the Holy Spirit, returning and strengthening in spiritual life.

In the sacrament of communion, the believer, under the guise of bread and wine, partakes of the very Body and Blood of Christ for Eternal Life.

The sacrament of repentance or confession is the recognition of one's sins before a priest who releases them on behalf of Jesus Christ.

The sacrament of the priesthood is performed through episcopal ordination during the elevation of one or another person to the rank of clergyman. The right to perform this sacrament belongs only to the bishop.

In the sacrament of marriage, which takes place in the temple at the wedding, the marital union of the bride and groom is blessed.

In the sacrament of unction (unction), when the body is anointed with oil, the grace of God is called upon the sick, healing the infirmities of the soul and body.

The other largest (along with Orthodoxy) trend in Christianity is Catholicism. Word "Catholicism" means - universal, universal. Its origins are from a small Roman Christian community, the first bishop of which, according to tradition, was the Apostle Peter. The process of isolation of Catholicism in Christianity began in the 3rd - 5th centuries, when economic, political, and cultural differences between the Western and Eastern parts of the Roman Empire grew and deepened. The beginning of the division of the Christian Church into Catholic and Orthodox was laid by the rivalry between the Popes of Rome and the Patriarchs of Constantinople for supremacy in Christian world. Around the year 867 there was a break between Pope Nicholas I and Patriarch Photius of Constantinople.

Catholicism as one of the directions Christian religion, recognizes its basic dogmas and rituals, but has a number of features in the dogma, in the cult, in the organization.

The basis of the Catholic faith, as well as of all Christianity, is the Holy Scripture and Holy Tradition. However, unlike the Orthodox Church, the Catholic Church considers as sacred tradition the resolutions not only of the first seven Ecumenical Councils, but also of all subsequent councils, and in addition - papal messages and resolutions.

The organization of the Catholic Church is marked by strict centralization. The Pope is the head of this Church. It defines doctrines on matters of faith and morals. His power is higher than the power of the Ecumenical Councils. The centralization of the Catholic Church gave rise to the principle of dogmatic development, expressed, in particular, in the right of non-traditional interpretation of dogma. Thus, in the Creed, recognized by the Orthodox Church, in the dogma of the Trinity it is said that the Holy Spirit proceeds from God the Father. catholic dogma declares that the Holy Spirit proceeds from both the Father and the Son. A peculiar doctrine about the role of the Church in the work of salvation was also formed. It is believed that the basis of salvation is faith and good deeds. The Church, according to the teachings of Catholicism (this is not the case in Orthodoxy), has a treasury of "super-due" deeds - a "reserve" of good deeds created by Jesus Christ, the Mother of God, holy, pious Christians. The Church has the right to dispose of this treasury, to give a part of it to those who need it, that is, to forgive sins, to grant forgiveness to the penitent. Hence the doctrine of indulgences - the remission of sins for money or for any merits before the Church. Hence - the rules of prayers for the dead and the right of the pope to shorten the duration of the soul's stay in purgatory.

The dogma of purgatory (a place intermediate between heaven and hell) exists only in the Catholic doctrine. The souls of sinners, who do not bear too great mortal sins, burn there in a cleansing fire (it is possible that this is a symbolic image of pangs of conscience and repentance), and then they gain access to paradise. The duration of the soul's stay in purgatory can be shortened good deeds(prayers, donations in favor of the church), which are performed in memory of the deceased by his relatives and friends on earth.

The doctrine of purgatory was formed in the 1st century. The Orthodox and Protestant Churches reject the doctrine of purgatory.

In addition, unlike the Orthodox dogma, in the Catholic there are such dogmas as the infallibility of the pope - adopted on I Vatican Cathedral in 1870; about immaculate conception Virgin Mary - proclaimed in 1854. The special attention of the Western Church to the Mother of God was manifested in the fact that in 1950 Pope Pius XII introduced the dogma of the bodily ascension of the Virgin Mary.

catholic creed, like the Orthodox, recognizes seven sacraments, but the understanding of these sacraments does not coincide in some details. Communion is made with unleavened bread (for the Orthodox - leavened). For the laity, communion is allowed both with bread and wine, and only with bread. When performing the sacrament of baptism, they sprinkle it with water, and do not immerse it in a font. Confirmation (confirmation) is performed at the age of 7-8 years, and not in infancy. In this case, the teenager receives another name, which he chooses for himself, and together with the name - the image of the saint, whose actions and ideas he intends to consciously follow. Thus, the performance of this rite should serve to strengthen one's faith.

In Orthodoxy, only black clergy (monasticism) take the vow of celibacy. Among Catholics, celibacy (celibacy), established by Pope Gregory VII, is obligatory for all the clergy.

The center of the cult is the temple. The Gothic style in architecture, which spread in Europe at the end of the Middle Ages, contributed a lot to the development and strengthening of the Catholic Church. Important elements cult - holidays, as well as fasts that regulate the everyday way of life of parishioners.

The Catholics call Advent the Advent. It begins on the first Sunday after St. Andrew's Day - November 30th. Christmas is the most solemn holiday. It is celebrated with three divine services: at midnight, at dawn and during the day, which symbolizes the birth of Christ in the bosom of the Father, in the womb of the Mother of God and in the soul of the believer. On this day, a manger with a figurine of the infant Christ is put up in temples for worship.

By Catholic hierarchy There are three degrees of priesthood: deacon, priest (curé, pater, priest), bishop. The bishop is appointed by the pope. The Pope is elected by the College of Cardinals by a majority of at least two-thirds plus one by secret ballot.

At the II Vatican Council (in 1962-1965) the process of agiornamento began - renewal, modernizing all aspects of the life of the church. First of all, this affected the tradition of worship. For example, the refusal to conduct the service necessarily in Latin.

Story Protestantism really begins with Martin Luther, who first broke with the Catholic Church, formulated and defended the main provisions Protestant Church. These provisions proceed from the fact that a direct connection between man and God is possible. Luther's rebellion against spiritual and secular authorities, his speeches against indulgence, against the claims of the Catholic clergy to control faith and conscience as an intermediary between people and God were heard and perceived by society extremely sharply.

The essence of Protestantism is this: divine grace is bestowed without the mediation of the church. Man's salvation occurs only through his personal faith in the atoning sacrifice of Jesus Christ. The laity are not separated from the clergy - the priesthood extends to all believers. Of the sacraments, baptism and communion are recognized. Believers are not subject to the Pope. The divine service consists of sermons, joint prayers and singing of psalms. Protestants do not recognize the cult of the Virgin, purgatory, reject monasticism, sign of the cross, sacred vestments, icons.

The fundamental principle of another direction - the congregationalists (from Latin - connection) - is the complete religious and organizational autonomy of each congregation. They are strict Puritans. Unlike the Calvinists, they involve all the laity in holding services and preaching. They preach the principle of secular and religious collectivism, therefore, the entire community is considered the recipient of grace. The doctrine of the predestination of the fate of man and the idea of ​​the inerrancy of the Bible are not as important for them as for the Calvinists. Congregationalism is common in Great Britain and its former colonies.

Presbyterians(from Greek - the oldest) - moderate Puritans. The Scottish Parliament in 1592 decided to make this doctrine state. At the head of the Church community is a presbyter, elected by the members of the community. Communities unite in unions, local and state. The rite is reduced to prayer, the sermon of the presbyter, the singing of psalms. The liturgy has been cancelled, neither the "Symbol of Faith" nor the "Our Father" is read. Only weekends are considered holidays.

Anglican Church - the state church of England. In 1534, after the break of the local Catholic Church with Rome, the English parliament declared the king

Henry VIII head of the Church. That is, the Church was subject to royal authority. In the middle of the 16th century, worship was introduced on English language, fasts were abolished, icons and images were confiscated, the celibacy of the clergy ceased to be obligatory. There was a doctrine of the "middle way", that is, the middle way between Roman Catholicism and continental Protestantism. The foundations of Anglican doctrine are reflected in the Book of Common Prayer.

The largest Protestant doctrine in terms of the number of followers - Baptism(from Greek - immerse in water, baptize with water) - came to us in the 70s of the XIX century. Followers of this teaching baptize only adults. "No one can choose a faith for a person, including parents. A person must accept faith consciously" - the main postulate of Baptists and evangelical Christians. Their worship is simplified as much as possible and consists of religious singing, prayers and sermons. Evangelical Christians retain four rites: baptism (for adults), communion in the form of communion, marriage, ordination (priesthood). The cross for evangelical Christians is not a symbol for veneration.

The causes of church splits are many and complex. Nevertheless, it can be argued that the main cause of church schisms was human sin, intolerance, and disrespect for human freedom.

At present, the leaders of both the Western and Eastern Churches are striving to overcome the pernicious consequences of centuries of enmity. Thus, in 1964, Pope Paul VI and Patriarch Athenagoras of Constantinople solemnly canceled the mutual curses pronounced by representatives of both Churches in the 11th century. A beginning has been laid for overcoming the sinful disunity of Western and Eastern Christians.

Even earlier, from the beginning of the 20th century, the so-called ecumenical movement (Greek - "eumena" - the universe) spread. At present, this movement is carried out mainly within the framework of the World Council of Churches (WCC).

Literature.

1. Kulakov A.E. Religions of the world: A textbook for general educational institutions.- M .: LLC Firm AST Publishing House, 1998.

2. Eliseev A. History of religions. Bustard, 1997.

3. History of religions: Proc. For students vys. textbook Institutions: in 2 volumes / Under the general editorship of prof. I.N. Yablokov.

4. Popov V.V. Petrenko S.P. Introduction to the history of religions / Ed. ed. O.A. Solodukhin. 1993.

5. Lectures on the history of religion. Tutorial. St. Petersburg, 1997.

6. .Kudryavtsev V.V. Lectures on the history of religion and free thought. Minsk, 1997.

7. Ranovich A.B. Primary sources on the history of early Christianity. Ancient Critics of Christianity. – M.: Politizdat, 1990.

8. Religions of the world. A guide for the teacher / Ed. Ya.N. Shchapova. M., 1994.

9. Yakovets Yu.V. History of civilizations. M., 1995.

10. Reznik E.V., Chudina Yu. Yu. Religions of the world. Orthodoxy. - M .: LLC "TD" Publishing House "World of Books", 2006.

11. Intymakova L.G., Nadolinskaya L.N. History of Religions: Textbook / Ed. prof. V.V. Popova - Taganrog: Taganrog Publishing House. state ped. in-ta.

The main current of Christianity, which opposed in the IV-VII centuries. Arianism, Nestorianism and other non-Chalcedonian currents, somewhat later itself was divided into two branches: western and eastern. It is generally accepted that this split was predetermined by the collapse of the Roman Empire in 395 into two parts: the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern Roman Empire, further historical destinies which were different. The first of them, a few decades later, fell under the blows of the "barbarians", and feudal states arose on its former territory in the early Middle Ages. Western Europe. The Eastern Roman Empire, which historians usually call Byzantium, lasted until the middle of the 15th century. Here feudalism develops similarly, but it differs significantly from Western European feudalism. Relations between church and state developed in completely different ways in the West and East. In the West, in connection with the decline and then the abolition of the power of the emperor, the authority of the head of the Western Christian Church, the pope, grew unusually. In the Middle Ages, in conditions of feudal fragmentation, the popes sought to put their power above the power of secular rulers, and more than once turned out to be winners in conflicts with them. In the East, where a single state and the strong power of the emperor were preserved for a long time, the patriarchs of churches (there were several of them here - Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, etc.) naturally could not obtain such independence and were essentially under the guardianship of the emperors. Played a role in the division of churches and a certain cultural disunity of Western Europe and Byzantium. As long as the unified Roman Empire existed, throughout its territory Latin and Greek. But later in the West, Latin was established as the language of church and state, and in the East they used mainly Greek.

Features of the socio-political development of the West and East, and differences in their cultural traditions - led to the gradual isolation of the Western and Eastern churches. Some differences between them are already noticeable in the 5th - 6th centuries. They intensified even more in the 8th - 10th centuries. in connection with the adoption in the West of some new dogmas rejected by the Eastern churches. A decisive step towards the violation of unity was taken in 589 at the Toledo Church Council, the decisions of which the Eastern Church categorically did not accept: in the Creed approved at the Council of Niceo-Constantinople in 381, representatives of the Western Church added the doctrine that the Holy Spirit proceeds not only from God the Father, but also from God the Son. In Latin, this doctrine sounds like Filioque (Filiogue - filio - son, gue - the preposition "and", put together after the word "son"). Formally, the innovation was made to oppose the teachings of the Arians (who affirmed the inequality of God the Son with God the Father), in order to affirm and emphasize this equality. However, this addition became the main subject of the dogmatic divergence of the future independent Orthodox and Catholic churches.

The final split occurred on July 16 in 1054., when the ambassadors of Pope Leo IX and the Patriarch of Constantinople Michael Cerularius, right at the service in the church of Hagia Sophia in Constantinople, accused each other of heresy and anathematized. Only in 1965 was this mutual anathema lifted. The name Orthodox (Greek Orthodox) was established behind the eastern church, and Catholic (Roman Catholic) behind the western one. "Orthodoxy" is a "tracing paper" of the Greek word "orthodoxy" ("orthos" - true, correct and "doxa" - opinion). The word "catholic" means "universal, worldwide." Orthodoxy spread mainly in the East and South-East of Europe. Currently, it is the main religion in such countries as: Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Bulgaria, Serbia, Greece, Romania and some others. Catholicism, however, for a long time (until the 16th century) was the religion of all Western Europe. In a later era, it retained its position in Italy, Spain, France, Poland and a number of other European countries. Catholicism also has its followers in Latin America and other countries of the world.

Distinctive features of the doctrine of the cult of Orthodoxy and Catholicism. Despite the fact that for many centuries the Orthodox and Catholic Churches have been in sharp controversy on many dogmatic issues, accusing each other of heresy, it should still be noted that similarities have been preserved both in cult practice and in elements of dogma. So, both Orthodoxy and Catholicism recognize two sources of dogma: Holy Bible and Holy Tradition. Holy Scripture is the Bible. Holy Tradition is believed to contain those provisions Christian doctrine which the apostles passed on to their disciples only orally. Therefore, for several centuries they were preserved in the church as an oral tradition and only later were recorded in the writings of the Church Fathers - prominent Christian writers of the 2nd - 5th centuries. In relation to the Holy Tradition, there are significant differences between Orthodox and Catholics: Orthodoxy recognizes the decisions of only seven Ecumenical Councils, and Catholics - twenty-one councils, the decisions of which were not recognized by the orthodox and were called "ecumenical" catholic church. Even before the official separation of the churches in 1054, significant differences had accumulated between the eastern and western branches of Christianity. They continued to grow after the emergence of two independent Christian churches. If you have been to Orthodox and Catholic churches, you could not help but pay attention to the difference in worship services, architecture and their internal structure. In Catholic church(the word church came to us from the Polish language, it is identical to the Russian concept of the church. This borrowing is explained by the fact that Poland is the closest Catholic country to Russia. However, not everyone catholic church appropriately called a church. This term is usually not applied to the temples of Western Europe) there is no iconostasis that separates the altar from the part of the temple where the faithful are, but, as a rule, there are many sculptures, paintings and stained-glass windows. An organ plays at Catholic services, but only human voices are heard in an Orthodox church. They sit in the church, and in the Orthodox church they stand during the service. Catholics are baptized with all straight fingers from left to right, and Orthodox from right to left and folded three, etc.

But all this is, as it were, an external side, a reflection of deeper disagreements and disputes. Consider the most important distinguishing features of Catholic dogma, the structure of the church, worship. Note that these differences are not enumerated in order to emphasize the distance between the two branches of Christianity. The question of how to pray, be baptized, sit or stand in the temple, more serious dogmatic disputes should not become a reason for enmity between people. It is simply desirable to know and understand the peculiarities of different faiths, which will help us mutually respect the right of each nation and individual to follow the faith of their fathers.

Let's start with the term itself Catholic.In translated from Greek it means general, universal. Before the schism, the entire Christian Church, both Western and Eastern, was called Catholic, emphasizing its worldwide character. But historically, this name was later assigned to the Western branch of Christianity. Throughout its history, the Western Roman Catholic Church has indeed striven to become the spokesman for the interests of all Christians, i.e. claimed world domination.

You are already familiar with the main dogmatic difference: this is the idea of ​​Catholics that the Holy Spirit (the third person of the Holy Trinity) comes out from God the Father and God the Son (filioque). The problem has been complicated by the fact that in Christian theology there has never been unity on the question of how to correctly interpret this is the origin which, quite logically, was considered incomprehensible to the human mind. In addition, the Greek verb "to proceed" used in the Creed was translated into Latin as procedo (lit. to come forward, to go on, to continue), which did not quite correspond to the meaning of the Greek word.

To an uninitiated person, this difference seems not so important, but for the theological concept of both Christian churches it is extremely significant: it is from it that many other dogmatic discrepancies follow.

An important specific dogma of Catholicism is the doctrine of "overdue deeds" (the so-called dogma of the "stock of good deeds"). According to this provision, over the long time of the existence of the church, a “surplus of good deeds” has been accumulated by Jesus Christ, the Mother of God and the saints. The Pope and the Church dispose of this wealth on Earth and can distribute it among those believers who need it, Catholic theologians believed. As a rule, sinners are interested in this "surplus" more than others, striving for the atonement of their sins. In Catholicism, as in Orthodoxy, a priest can, after confession and repentance, forgive the sins of the parishioners by the spiritual authority given to him by God. But this is not yet complete forgiveness, since it does not guarantee the deliverance of the sinner from the possible retribution for sin on earth and "in the next world" immediately after death. Therefore, from the theory of "overdue deeds" was born the practice of issuing indulgences (from Latin indulgentia mercy, forgiveness), those. special papal letters testifying to the complete remission of both perfect and imperfect sins due to the “transfer to your account” of a part of the “surplus”. At first, indulgences were given out for any church merits of the penitent, but the idea was brought to its logical end when the church began to simply sell these papers for money. Such trade incomparably enriched the church, but it provoked stormy criticism of many contemporaries - after all, the immorality in such a practice is indeed obvious. It was the protest against the sale of indulgences that was the main impetus for the reformation and the beginning of Protestantism in the 16th century.

Criticism and direct ridicule forced the pope to reconsider this shameful practice: since 1547, the sale of indulgences was strictly prohibited. For certain church merits (or for holidays), indulgences can be issued even now, but not so much to individuals as to entire church communities. The Catholic Church has a peculiar doctrine of heaven and hell. At the Ferrara-Florence Cathedral in 1439, the dogma was adopted that after death the sinner falls into the so-called purgatory (dogma l purgatory), where he temporarily remains in torment, being cleansed by fire (for the first time, Pope Gregory the Great (VI c) spoke about purgatory - one of the creators of the rite of the Liturgy. Subsequently, he can go to heaven from here. If you are familiar with the work of Dante Alighieri (The Divine Comedy" by Dante Alighieri includes 3 parts: "Hell", "Purgatory", "Paradise"), then you know that hell, in the view of Catholics, consists of nine concentric circles into which sinners fall, depending on the severity of what they have done in life. There was no such teaching in the New Testament, nor in the teaching of early Christianity. The Catholic Church claimed that during the stay of the deceased in purgatory, relatives can, by fervently praying or donating money to the church, “ransom” him and thereby reduce the torment loved one(according to the theory of "overdue deeds"). In the Orthodox Church, such a detailed idea of ​​the transition to afterlife no, although it is also customary to pray for the dead and commemorate them on the third, ninth and fortieth day after death. These prayers caused misunderstanding of Catholic theologians, because if after death the soul goes directly to God, then what is the meaning of these prayers?

In Catholicism, the cult of the Virgin Mary plays a special role. In 1864, a dogma was adopted saying that she, like Christ, was conceived immaculate (the dogma of the immaculate conception of the Virgin Mary),"from the Holy Spirit." Relatively recently, in 1950, it was also added the dogma that the Mother of God "ascended to heaven in body and soul." Thus, in this she is, as it were, completely equated by Catholics with her divine son - Jesus. The cults of the Mother of God (Italian Madonna) and Christ in Western Christianity are equalized, and in practice the Virgin Mary is revered even more. The Eastern Church also fervently and touchingly venerates the Mother of God, but Orthodox theologians believe that if they recognize her as equal to Christ in everything, the latter cannot be her Savior in relation to her.

The Catholic Church, like the Orthodox, reveres cult of saints. Every day the Catholic Church commemorates several saints. Some of them are common to all Christians, and some are purely Catholic. There are disagreements about the recognition of certain figures as saints. For example, Emperor Constantine the Great (4th century), who made Christianity the state religion of the Roman Empire, is not canonized by Catholics (unlike the Orthodox) as a saint, although he is considered an example of a Christian ruler.

The canonization of saints occurs in Catholicism, as in Orthodoxy, through canonization, which is carried out, as a rule, many years after the death of the saint. In this matter, the opinion of the Pope plays an important role. In addition to canonization, Catholics adopted the so-called Beatification (from lat. Beatus - blessed and facio - I do) - preliminary canonization. It is solely carried out by the father.

Orthodoxy and Catholicism strictly follow the principle of "the saving power of the church." In these branches of Christianity (unlike Protestantism), it is believed that there is no salvation without the church, since this saving power is transmitted through The sacraments are vehicles of grace(except for the church, the Sacraments cannot be performed anywhere else). The Eastern and Western churches recognize 7 Sacraments, but there are differences in their administration:

1. Sacrament of Baptism- frees a person from original sin and from the influence of fallen spirits (demons, demons). Baptism is performed by Catholics by pouring water on the head of the person being baptized three times, and not three times by immersion in water, as in Orthodoxy (now existing in some Orthodox churches the practice of baptizing adults without immersion is fundamentally wrong. Usually it is associated with an elementary lack of the required conditions - a room, a large font). Both infants and adults can be baptized. In the first case, parents take full responsibility for the Christian upbringing of children upon reaching a conscious age. An adult, on the eve of baptism, must go through a preparatory period - catechesis(studying the foundations of the faith) and confirm your readiness to become a Christian. In some cases, baptism can be performed without a priest, by the forces of the churched laity.

2. Sacrament of Chrismation(as a result of which a person receives the grace of the Holy Spirit to strengthen spiritual forces) in Catholicism is called confirmation, which literally means "affirmation", "strengthening". It is not performed on babies (in Orthodoxy such a practice exists), but only when a person reaches a conscious age and once.

3. Sacrament of confession, repentance and the remission of sins occurs, according to the doctrine of Catholics and Orthodox, before God and on behalf of God. The clergyman acts in this case only as a witness and "transmitting agency" of God's will. In Catholicism, as in Orthodoxy, the secrecy of confession must be strictly observed.

4. Communion Eucharist all Christians consider it established by Jesus himself at the Last Supper. For a Catholic and an Orthodox believer, this Sacrament is the immutable and main foundation of all church life Communion among the laity was usually carried out in the Western Church only with bread (and not with bread and wine, as in Orthodoxy). Only priests had the right to partake of wine (laity - by special permission of the pope). Now this restriction has been relaxed, and the issue has been left to the discretion of local church hierarchs. For communion Catholics use unleavened bread (wafer), and Orthodox - sour (prosphora). As well as confirmation, the first communion is performed on children who have reached the conscious age (usually about 7-10 years old; for the Orthodox, immediately after the baptism of the baby). It becomes a great family holiday and a memorable day. It is customary for Catholics to take communion often, almost daily, so the fast required by ancient rules on the eve of this sacrament is reduced to a minimum. The Sacrament of Communion is performed by Catholics at the Mass, by the Orthodox at the Liturgy, the main church services.

5. Sacrament of marriage sanctifies the union of a man and a woman with God's grace and gives strength to overcome difficulties on life path. W closed in the Catholic Church, church marriage is theoretically indissoluble, therefore, divorces in Catholic countries are very difficult, and re-marriage is generally impossible. The Catholic Church recognizes weddings performed in churches of other Christian denominations, marriages with non-believers and non-believers (subject to certain conditions). The family and interests of children are especially protected by the Catholic Church. In Catholic countries, abortions are under strict ecclesiastical prohibition. In Orthodoxy, a church marriage is dissolved if there are serious reasons: the sin of adultery (treason) of one of the spouses, mental illness, hiding belonging to an alternative orthodoxy faith.

6. Sacrament of Unction (Unction)- the grace of deliverance from physical and mental illnesses and the forgiveness of forgotten and unconfessed sins. In Catholicism, this sacrament is performed once as a dying rite.

7. Sacrament of priesthood. Just as in Orthodoxy, there are three degrees of priesthood in Catholicism: the lowest degree - deacons (assistants), the middle degree - the priesthood itself (presbyters) and bishops - the highest degree. Initiation into any of these degrees occurs through the rite of ordination. Catholics have a rule of "absence from the clergy" Priests in the Catholic Church take a vow of celibacy (celibacy of the clergy), than approaching the position of the monks. All clergy, regardless of the degree of priesthood, is divided into white (ordinary) and black (monasticism), while only representatives of the black clergy are consecrated to the rank of bishop.

He took a similar step in relation to papal legates. These events are considered to be the turning point in the process of splitting the Christian world. Subsequently, several attempts were made to restore the unity of the church, but they all ended in failure. Only in 1965, mutual anathemas were lifted, but religious structures are still far from merging to this day. According to experts, the church split was one of the reasons why the western and eastern parts of Europe went different ways in its development.

On July 16, 1054, three papal legates placed on the altar of Hagia Sophia a letter of dismissal, anathematizing the Patriarch of Constantinople and his two assistants. This event is often called the reason for the split of the Christian world, however, according to historians, the process of confrontation began much earlier.

Road to split

Disagreements between Rome and Constantinople have existed for centuries. They escalated, according to the doctor of historical sciences, academician Oleg Ulyanov, under Charlemagne, who founded the Carolingian Empire and received the title of Emperor of the West.

“On the personal initiative of Charlemagne in the West, the Orthodox dogma of icon veneration was rejected and the Creed was changed ( summary dogmas of the church) by adding filioque (to Latin translation In the Niceno-Constantinopolitan Creed, "and the Son" was added to the doctrine of the Trinity, which speaks of the procession of the Holy Spirit from God the Father. - RT ),” the historian explained.

“The first obvious split between the Western and Eastern churches occurred in 867 due to a dispute over the canonical subordination of the newly baptized Bulgaria. However, the cathedral in Constantinople in 869-870 again reunited the Eastern and Western churches for a while, ”Oleg Ulyanov said in an interview with RT.

The formal reason for the conflict then became Rome's claims to the legality of the procedure for electing Patriarch Photius of Constantinople. However, in fact, at that time, the Roman Curia tried to penetrate the Balkans, which was contrary to the interests of the Byzantine Empire.

According to Oleg Ulyanov, at the global level, the rivalry between Rome and Constantinople was associated with various interpretations leadership in the Christian church.

“The Roman concept is based on the definition of the Apostle Peter in the Gospel and affirms the advantages of the churches depending on the activities of the apostles. And Constantinople, like New Rome, adheres to the political principle of the primacy of thrones, according to which the church hierarchy is completely subordinate to the political structure of the Christian empire and depends on the political importance of church pulpits,” the historian said.

In the 10th century, the intensity of the conflict decreased, but in the 11th century, the rivalry became fierce again.

Split clearance

In the Middle Ages, part of the lands in southern Italy belonged to Byzantium, and local Christian parishes were under the jurisdiction of Constantinople. However, the Byzantines on the Apennine Peninsula were opposed by the Holy Roman Empire and representatives of the local people of the Lombards. It was they who in the 10th century called for the help of the Normans, who were actively involved in the political struggle in the Apennines. In the first half of the 11th century, two Norman counties arose in southern Italy, which in 1047 accepted vassalage from the Holy Roman Empire.

In the lands controlled by the Normans, Western Christian rites began to crowd out Eastern ones, which caused strong discontent in Constantinople. In response, the temples of the Latin rite in the capital of Byzantium were closed. In parallel, a controversy escalated between Greek and Latin theologians regarding which bread - unleavened or leavened - should be used in the sacrament of Holy Communion, and on a number of other canonical and dogmatic issues.

In 1054, Pope Leo IX sent his legates to Constantinople, led by Cardinal Humbert. The Pope sent a message to Patriarch Michael Cerularius, in which he outlined his claims to full power in the Christian Church, referring to the so-called Constantine gift - a document that was allegedly a message from Emperor Constantine the Great to Pope Sylvester and transferred to Rome the highest spiritual power in the Christian world. Subsequently, the gift of Constantine was recognized as a fake (a fake was made, presumably, in the 8th or 9th century in France), but in the 11th century, Rome still officially called it genuine. The patriarch rejected the claims of the pope set out in the message, and negotiations with the participation of the legates turned out to be fruitless. Then, on July 16, 1054, the papal legates entered the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople and placed on its altar a letter of excommunication, anathematizing Patriarch Michael Cerularius and his assistants. Four days later, the patriarch responded by anathematizing the papal legates.

Consequences of the split

“It was after the schism of 1054 that the Roman Church in the West proclaims itself Catholic (“universal”), and in the East the name “Orthodox Church” was fixed - to designate the community of all Orthodox thrones,” said Oleg Ulyanov. According to him, the consequence of the schism in 1054 was the conquest of Constantinople in 1204 by the crusaders, who considered the Orthodox schismatics.

Against the backdrop of the weakening and then the death of the Byzantine Empire, Rome several times tried to persuade the Orthodox Church to unite under its rule.

In 1274, the Byzantine emperor Michael VIII gave his consent to the merger of the churches on the terms of the Pope in exchange for military cooperation with the West. This agreement was formalized at the Second Council of Lyons. But it was recognized as insignificant under the new Byzantine emperor - Andronicus II.

Another attempt to conclude a union was made at the Ferrara-Florence Cathedral of 1438-1445. However, his decisions also turned out to be fragile and short-lived. After a short time, even those bishops and metropolitans who initially agreed with them refused to fulfill them: they referred to the fact that they recognized the supremacy of the Pope under pressure.

Subsequently, the Catholic Church, relying on the secular authorities of states controlled by Catholics, persuaded individual Orthodox churches to conclude unions. Thus was concluded the Union of Brest in 1596, which established Greek Catholic Church on the territory of the Commonwealth, and the Union of Uzhgorod (1646), which spiritually resubordinated the Orthodox population of Transcarpathia to the Pope of Rome.

In the XIII century, the German Teutonic Order made a large-scale attempt to expand to the east, but its invasion of Russian lands was stopped by the prince

“To a large extent, as a result of the division of churches, cultural and political development went differently in the West and in the East. The papacy claimed secular power, while Orthodoxy, on the contrary, was subordinate to the state,” the expert noted.

True, in his opinion, in the twentieth century, the contradictions and differences between the churches were to a certain extent smoothed out. This was expressed, in particular, in the fact that the Pope began to lose secular power, and the Orthodox Church in a number of situations found itself in opposition to the state.

In 1964, Pope Paul VI met with Patriarch Athenagoras of Constantinople in Jerusalem. On the next year mutual anathemas were lifted. At the same time, Orthodoxy did not recognize the filioque, and Catholicism did not agree with the denial of the dogmas about the primacy of the Pope and the infallibility of his judgments.

“At the same time, despite the differences, there is a process of rapprochement: the churches demonstrate that they can be allies in certain issues,” Roman Lunkin summed up.

The Holy Synod of the Church of Constantinople canceled the decree of 1686 on the transfer of the Kyiv Metropolis to the Moscow Patriarchate. Not far off is the granting of autocephaly to the Ukrainian Orthodox Church.

There have been many schisms in the history of Christianity. It all started not even with Great Schism 1054, when the Christian Church was divided into Orthodox and Catholic, and much earlier.

All images in the publication: wikipedia.org

The papal schism in history is also called the Great Western. It happened due to the fact that almost at the same time two people were declared popes at once. One is in Rome, the other is in Avignon, the site of the seventy-year captivity of the popes. Actually, the end of the Avignon captivity led to disagreements.

Two popes were elected in 1378

In 1378, Pope Gregory XI died, interrupting the captivity, and after his death, the supporters of the return elected Pope Urban VI in Rome. The French cardinals, who opposed the withdrawal from Avignon, made Clement VII pope. The whole of Europe was divided. Some countries supported Rome, some supported Avignon. This period lasted until 1417. The popes who ruled at that time in Avignon are now among the antipopes of the Catholic Church.

The first schism in Christianity is considered to be the Akakian schism. The split began in 484 and lasted 35 years. The controversy flared up around the "Enotikon" - the religious message of the Byzantine emperor Zeno. It was not the emperor himself who worked on this message, but the Patriarch Akakii of Constantinople.

Akakian schism - the first split in Christianity

In dogmatic matters, Akaki did not agree with Pope Felix III. Felix deposed Akakiy, Akakiy ordered that the name of Felix be deleted from the funeral diptychs.

The tension between Constantinople and Rome grew and grew. Mutual discontent resulted in the Great Schism of 1054. The Christian Church was then finally divided into Orthodox and Catholic. This happened under the Patriarch of Constantinople Michael I Cerularia and Pope Leo IX. It got to the point that in Constantinople they threw out and trampled prosphora prepared in the Western manner - without leaven.

1054 - the year of the Great Schism

For many centuries the Catholic Orthodox Church formally remained implacable enemies. Only in 1965 mutual anathemas were lifted, but contradictions and differences remain to this day.

The disintegration of the Christian Church into the Catholic with its center in Rome and the Orthodox with its center in Constantinople was brewing long before the final division in 1054. The harbinger of the events of the XI century was the so-called Photius schism. This schism, dating from 863-867, was named after Photius I, the then patriarch of Constantinople.

Photius and Nikolai excommunicated each other from the church

Photius' relationship with Pope Nicholas I was, to put it mildly, strained. The pope intended to strengthen the influence of Rome in the Balkan Peninsula, but this caused resistance from the patriarch of Constantinople. Nicholas also appealed to the fact that Photius had become patriarch unlawfully. It all ended with the church leaders anathematizing each other.