B. truth

B. beauty

G. benefit

D. success

The way to directly comprehend the truth without substantiation with the help of evidence is ...

A. intelligence

B. intuition

B. thinking

G. representation

D. feeling

Evaluation of information as true without sufficient logical and factual justification is called ...

B. perception

V. knowledge

G. tricked

D. illusion

Delusion is different from lies and misinformation...

A. more common

B. the property of unintentionality

B. degree of objectivity

D. degree of subjectivity

D. degree of validity

The Marxist understanding of truth is based on:

A. coherent conception of truth

B. the conventional concept of truth

B. Correspondent conception of truth

D. pragmatic conception of truth

D. the religious concept of truth

The correspondent (classical) concept of truth suggests that...

A. the statement is true if the state of affairs, which is stated in the statement, takes place in the world

B. the statement is true if it is logically deduced from the initial postulates of some consistent theory

B. the statement is true if its practical use leads to the achievement of the goal

D. the statement is true if it corresponds to the accepted conventions

The material, sensory-objective activity of a person, which has as its content the development and transformation of natural and social objects, is designated in Marxism by the concept ...

B. politics

B. practice

G. production

D. economics

The main criterion of truth for dialectical materialism is (are)...

A. logical consistency

B. practical activities

B. self-evidence

D. uniqueness

D. immutability

The property of truth, which characterizes its independence from the cognizing subject, is ...

A. absoluteness

B. abstractness

B. objectivity

G. reality

D. subjectivity

The dependence of truth on conditions, place and time is expressed in the concept...

A. "absolute"

B. "abstract"

B. "delusion"

G. "specificity"

D. "objectivity"

Postclassical direction of Western European philosophy, whose representatives raised the question of cognitive status philosophical knowledge, has been named...

A. Marxism

B. pragmatism

B. positivism

G. existentialism

D. Freudianism

Who owns the following statement: human spirit by its very nature, in each of its investigations, it consistently uses three methods of thinking, essentially different in character and even directly opposite to each other: first the theological method, then the metaphysical, and finally the positive method”?

A. L. Wittgenstein

B. O. Kontu

V. T. Kunu

G.K. Popper

D. G. Spencer

What direction of positivism is also called "empirio-criticism"?

A. neopositivism

B. classical positivism

V. second positivism

D. postpositivism

D. existentialism

Worldview orientations, which are based on the recognition or, accordingly, the denial of the importance of science as a social standard and as a sufficient condition for solving social problems, are denoted by such paired concepts as:

A. altruism - selfishness

B. idealism - materialism

B. rationalism - empiricism

D. scientism - anti-scientism

D. progressivism - conservatism

Which of the scientific disciplines O. Comte put at the base of his "hierarchy of sciences"?

A. astronomy

B. biology

B. math

G. physics

D. sociology

Which of the directions unites such scientists as M. Schlick, B. Russell, L. Wittgenstein?

A. neopositivism

B. classical positivism

V. second positivism.

D. postpositivism

D. pragmatism

The representative of which philosophical direction belongs to the following statement: To whom the following statement belongs: “Most of the proposals and questions made about philosophical problems are not false, but meaningless"?

A. Marxism

B. pragmatism

B. positivism

G. existentialism

D. freudianism

Which of the following sentences is the general premise of neopositivism?

A. sentences of sciences that use descriptions of objects in terms of observation must be adequately translated into sentences from those terms that are used by physics

B. real knowledge should be reduced to finite and simple metaphysical entities - "logical atoms"

B. logic and mathematics are formal transformations in the language of science

D. only those sentences make sense that can be reduced to sentences fixed by the direct sensory experience of an individual or the notes of a scientist

Theories of truth (classical, coherent, pragmatic, conventional, dialectical-materialistic). What difficulties did the classical concept of truth encounter?

Truth is the correspondence of ideas or statements to the real state of affairs, that is, the correspondence of our knowledge to reality. Reality in this definition is understood very broadly:

• a) objective reality(external world);
• b) subjective reality (inner spiritual world);

According to the classical concept, truth is knowledge corresponding to reality. From the point of view of this approach, the main property of truth is objectivity - independence from a person. For example, Aristotle defined truth as the correspondence of knowledge to objects (correspondence theory).

According to the coherent theory, truth is knowledge consistent with existing theories (Hegel).

From the point of view of pragmatism, truth is knowledge leading to successful action. The criterion of truth is usefulness, efficiency (C. Pierce, W. James, D. Dewey).

According to conventionalism, truth is the result of an agreement between scientists to choose the most expedient and easy-to-use scientific theory (A. Poincaré).

The dialectical-materialist concept of truth complements and develops the classical concept. It includes ideas about objective truth, absolute and relative truth, the concreteness of truth.

Objective truth is the content of our knowledge that does not depend on the will and consciousness of people and that adequately reflects the objects and phenomena of reality.

Objective truth includes absolute and relative truth.

Absolute truth is 1) complete, exhaustive knowledge about the world; 2) elements of knowledge that are not subject to change and refinement in the future.

Relative truth - 1) incomplete, not exhaustive knowledge about the world, 2) elements of knowledge that will be further refined and developed.

The classical concept of truth ran into considerable difficulties.

The first difficulty is related to the concept of reality. To be able to compare knowledge with reality, we must be sure of its authenticity. But there is just no certainty, because we compare our knowledge not with reality itself, but with our perception of it. Our perceptions, formed images cannot be independent of our cognitive abilities. The circle is closed.

The second difficulty is related to the need to clarify the very concept of "correspondence". For the relationship between thought and reality is not a mere correspondence. A thought, an image is not a copy of reality, but a complex ideal formation that has a multi-level structure. In reality, we compare knowledge with facts, but the facts themselves are also expressed in statements. Therefore, we establish only the correspondence of some statements to others.

The third difficulty is caused by problems of conformity as such. What about statements like “everything has a reason”, “energy is not destroyed”? To what kind of concrete objects or facts can these statements be related, if they apply to everything in the world?

The fourth difficulty is related to the existence of pluralism of truths. For example, a person studies the sciences: biology, medicine, anthropology, sociology, economics, ethics, etc. Each of them gives its own knowledge about a person, which cannot be combined into one whole or preferred one to another.

The difficulties of the classical concept are even more obvious against the background of the logical paradoxes found in it. For example, the liar paradox. If a liar claims about himself: "I'm lying," then he describes the fact of his insincere behavior. At the same time, his statement is reliable, therefore true. Therefore, a liar is a decent person because he speaks the truth.

The search for truth is aimed at identifying the facts corresponding to the object of study and (or) analysis, reflecting it in reality. For the first time close to this definition was given by Aristotle.

Subsequently, philosophers repeatedly turned to this concept. So, Montaigne believed that there is an exclusively subjective truth. He proceeded from the impossibility of obtaining knowledge that fully and reliably reflected the world. This trend later became known as skepticism.

Bacon takes a different position. From his point of view, the objective nature of truth cannot be denied. But it is established exclusively by experience. Anything that cannot be verified is questioned. Such criteria of truth are observed in empiricism. Another rather curious approach was demonstrated by Hume. His criterion of truth is sensation. The philosopher believed that the world can and should be known by the senses, emotions, intuition. His criteria for truth were repeatedly criticized, but found a fairly wide response in literature, especially in poetry.

Considered the concept of truth and great philosopher Immanuel Kant. He criticized excessive rationality, considering it presumptuous, and became the founder of agnosticism. The thinker believed that the truth and its criteria will never be fully studied, because it is simply impossible. He created the concept of "thing in itself", the unknowable.

And finally, Descartes introduced his concept of truth. Despite the fact that most people know, basically, his famous phrase, this philosopher and mathematician turned out to have a whole system of views. For him, truth is knowledge, the reliability of which is verified by the very mind. The scientist pays attention to the ability of a person to be his own critic. Which includes self-observation, analysis and working with conclusions. By introducing this criterion of truth, Descartes founded rationalism.

The debate over the criterion of truth continues today. However, in order to demonstrate knowledge of social science, one must understand existing points of view. Being familiar with them does not automatically mean agreeing. When looking for an answer to the question of whether the following judgments about truth, one can and should be guided not only by knowledge, but also by logic. But knowledge of social science material is usually demonstrated by specific intended answers, and even if you different reasons do not agree. There is a curriculum.

So, the main criterion of truth for dialectical materialism is practice. In general, the modern approach has absorbed a lot from a number of philosophers. And speaking of what is the criterion of truth, there are three main ways of verification. So this is:

1. Sensory experience

Despite the fact that the organs of vision can deceive us, there is a high probability that the information they receive is true. Here its understanding already depends on what is meant by this or that concept.

2. Theoretical justification

Truth is knowledge that is tested by the laws of logic and science. If a fact contradicts them, its veracity is questioned.

3. Practice as a criterion of truth

It is necessary to explain what meaning is put today in this approach. In general, it is interpreted as broadly as possible. But the main point here was the opportunity to study something in laboratories, to obtain data empirically, to investigate either the object itself or the traces that the material world wears.

The last point needs more explanation. So, it is impossible not to take into account the conditions of the surrounding reality. Dinosaurs died out in it, although the truth is that they were. Nevertheless, it is quite difficult to study them today. At the same time, they left their mark on history. There are other examples: distant space objects are a very inconvenient subject of study. Nevertheless, remoteness in time, in space does not become a reason to doubt that both of them, at least, existed. So the difficulty of research does not affect the recognition of the truth.

Kinds of truth

Truth is knowledge, which may be exhaustive or incomplete, depending on the availability of the object of study, on the availability of a material base, existing knowledge, the level of development of science, and so on. If everything is already known about a particular phenomenon or subject, subsequent scientific discoveries cannot refute such a fight, then this is an absolute truth, in fact, there is not very much absolute truth, because almost all areas of science are developing, our knowledge about the world around us is constantly replenished. And often they transform.

If we talk about absolute truths, then such statements can be a striking example: human body mortal, living organisms need to eat, the planet Earth moves around its axis. In most cases, practice has become the criterion of truth, although not always. solar system in many respects it was first studied analytically, by calculations, and then the facts were already confirmed empirically.

Even social scientists consider such a concept as relative truth. As an example, we can cite the device of the atom, which was constantly refined. Or human anatomy: from a certain point on, doctors stopped being delusional about the work of most organs, but they did not always clearly imagine certain internal mechanisms. It is noticeable that dialectics helped a lot here, because only by practice were the criteria of truth established in the medical field. This very clearly demonstrates how purely theoretical and applied areas can intersect. Other stories on this topic can be found on the Web if you search for data on the topic "practice is the criterion of truth."

It is also worth understanding what is objective truth. Its fundamental difference is independence from a person, his consciousness and activity. In general, you can dwell on the three varieties listed. There are other classifications, but you should definitely familiarize yourself with these types (this is required by the plan). However, if you want clarifications, select the concept of truth and its criteria on the Internet. Today it will not be difficult to find more detailed information on any of philosophical teachings and comments on the topic under discussion.

Immediate goal cognition is the comprehension of truth, but since the process of cognition is a complex process of approaching an image in thinking to an object,

so much the dialectical-materialist understanding of the truth

We include several aspects of its consideration. More precisely, truth should be regarded as a certain epistemological system. The theory of truth appears as a system of interrelated categories. The most important concept of the theory of truth is "objectivity of truth". This is understood as the conditionality of the content of knowledge by the subject of knowledge. objective truth they call such content of knowledge that does not depend on the cognizing subject (“man and humanity”). For example, the statement "The earth rotates on its axis."

The objectivity of truth is the most essential property of truth. Knowledge is only meaningful (valuable) when it contains objective content. V.G. Belinsky wrote: "Persuasion should be expensive only because it is true, and not at all because it is ours." However, emphasizing the objectivity of truth, one should not forget that as a way of mastering reality by a person truth is subjective.

The dialectical-materialist doctrine of truth essentially differs from the formulation of this question not only by the idealists, but also by the pre-Marxist materialists, who did not understand the dialectics of knowledge. After the recognition of objective truth arises new question: can human ideas express objective truth at once, entirely, absolutely, or only approximately, relatively? Hegel wrote: "Truth is not a minted coin, which

can be given ready-made and in the same form hidden in a pocket ”(Hegel G. Soch. - M .; L., 1929-1937. T. 4. S. 20).

Comprehension of truthful knowledge - internally controversial process associated with the constant overcoming of delusions. Cognition is a process of movement from limited, approximate knowledge to ever deeper and more general knowledge.

schuschy. On differences degrees of completeness of reflection inherent in different stages of the formation and development of knowledge, the distinction between relative and absolute truths is based, as well as the understanding of knowledge as a dialectical movement from relative truths to absolute truth as the most complete and accurate reproduction of the world.

Relative truth is an approximate coincidence of knowledge with an object. The relativity of truth is due to the following factors: (1) the subjectivity of the forms of reflection (acts of the human psyche); (2) the approximate (limited) nature of all knowledge; (3) limited area of ​​reflection in specific acts of cognition;

(4) influence on the reflection of ideology; (5) the dependence of the truth of judgments on the type and structure of the language of the theory;

(6) limited level of practice. An example of relative truth is the statement "The sum of the interior angles of a triangle is 180˚", since it is true only in Euclidean geometry.

absolute truth characterizes knowledge in terms of its stability, completeness and irrefutability. In dialectical-materialistic epistemology, the term "absolute truth" is used in three different senses: (1) as complete and exhaustive knowledge of all that was, is, and will be; (2) the objective content of knowledge as part of relative knowledge; (3) the so-called "eternal" truths, that is, the truths of a particular fact. For example, "Napoleon died on May 5, 1821", "Belinsky - on May 26, 1848".

The unity of theory and practice, knowledge and activity finds expression in the principle of the concreteness of truth. The concreteness of truth- this is a property of truth, based on the completeness of reflection and taking into account the specific conditions for the existence and cognition of an object in connection with practical needs.

3. Practice as a criterion of truth

AT dialectical-materialistic epistemology of society

military-historical practice acts as a criterion of truth

us because, as the material activity of people, it has the dignity of immediate reality. Practice connects and correlates the object and the action that is performed in accordance with the thought of it. It is in practice that the reality and power of our thinking is manifested. It is no coincidence that Karl Marx noted: “The question of whether human thinking has objective truth is not at all a question of theory, but a practical question” (Marx K., Engels F. Soch. 2nd ed. T. 3. S. 1 ). Friedrich Engels is even more convincing: “... we can prove the correctness of our understanding of a given natural phenomenon by producing it ourselves, calling it from its conditions, forcing it to also serve our goals ...” (Marx K., Engels F. Soch. 2nd ed. T. 21. S. 284). Practice is both an absolute (in the sense of being fundamental) and a relative criterion of truth. As the basic criterion of truth, practice enables us to fight against idealism and agnosticism. Practice is a relative criterion, since it has a concrete historical character. And this does not allow our knowledge to turn into an "absolute". Practice in this case is directed against dogmatism. At the same time, when knowledge (theory) diverges from

practice, one must be critical not only of knowledge,

but also to practice.

Practice is not only a certain criterion of truth, but also certainty criterion cognition and knowledge. It is she who gives them certainty. The correlation of concepts, knowledge with practice fills them with concrete content and sets the limits of accounting in principle of the infinite connection of a cognizable object with other objects. And within the limits established by practice (the level of its development, practical needs and tasks), the correspondence of knowledge to reality becomes quite definite and can be exhaustive in this sense. Otherwise, we will remain in positions absolute relativism and we won’t be able to solve even a simple cognitive task of everyday life like the joke “How much firewood do you need for the winter?”. The philosophical meaning of this joke is easily captured from its content. One young man, a city dweller by nature, moved to the countryside and decided to check with his rural friend: how much firewood is needed for the winter? The friend possessed not only worldly experience village life, but also with humor, so he answered the question with a question:

- It depends what kind of hut? City explained what. The first asked again:

- It depends on how many ovens? The second answered how much. The question came again:

- It depends what kind of firewood?

- Birch, - said the city.

- It depends what kind of winter it is? - the villager argued.

And the dialogue continued. And it could go on forever.

The Marxist-Leninist theory of knowledge is based onknowledge of objective existence material world and his reflections in the human mind.

But if the world exists objectively, outside of us and independentlyfrom us, then its true reflection in the mind, that is, our true knowledge about objects, phenomena real world, in their content are also objective, independent of the will and consciousness of any dey. After all, a person can think only about objects, phenomena ortheir elements that really exist. And this means that in our thoughts contain a lot of things that depend not on us, but on the things we think about.

V. I. Lenin said that objective truth- it's like that the content of human knowledge that does not depend on consciousnessand the will of people and corresponds to reflected objects, phenomena of the material world. Objective truth is a correct reflectionnotion of objective reality in human ideas,concepts, ideas and theories.

The ideal is nothing but the material, transplantedinto the human head and transformed in it, wrote K. Marx.Therefore, our sensations, ideas, concepts, since they arose due to the impact of material objects on our senses, are not the fruit of an empty fantasy that wears purely subjective. They are in their content have such sides, moments that reflect objects, phenomena of the material world. But since our thoughts are are objects “transplanted into a human head and transformed in it", they contain something that introduced into them by human consciousness, that is, elements, momentssubjective. The presence of subjective elements in thoughts explain nyatsyathe fact that knowledge of the objective world is always humanchess knowledge. It follows that the depth and reliability reflections of the material world in consciousness to a certain extent depend on the cognizer, on the level of his development, on the presence of experience and knowledge, from the personal abilities of the researcher.

Sensations, ideas, concepts, said V. I. Lenin, these are subjective images of objective objects of the material world. These images cannot be called absolutely identical with the previous ones.metaphors that they reflect, nor completely different from them.

In this regard, the question arises: does objective truth givecomplete, exhaustive knowledge about the subject, or does it contain incomplete, approximate knowledge about it? Answers correctly this question is the Marxist-Leninist doctrine of the absolute and relativestrong truth.

absolute truth This is such an objective truth that contains a complete and comprehensive knowledge of the essence of objects,phenomena of the material world. Because of this, the absolute truthcan never be refuted. Cognizing objects, phenomena, patterns of the objective world, a person cannot comprehend the absolute truth at once in its entirety, finally, but masters it gradually. The movement towards absolute truth is accomplished throughcountless relative truths, that is, suchty, positions, theories, which basically correctly reflectphenomena of objective reality, but in the process of development science and social practice are continuously refined, specific tyzed, deepened; they make up a moment, a side, a stustump on the way to mastering the absolute truth.

Absolute truth, wrote V. I. Lenin, “is made up of sumswe are relative truths. Each stage in the development of science adds new grains to this sum of absolute truth, but the limits of the truth of each scientific proposition are relative, being oncemoved, then narrowed by the further growth of knowledge” 1 .

The limits of our knowledge are historically limited, but asdevelopment and improvement of the practice of humanity all the time approaches absolute truth, never exhausting it toend. And this is quite understandable. The objective world is in constanta dynamic process of movement and development. At any stage of thisdevelopment of human thought is not able to cover all the diversitysides of an ever-evolving reality, but is capable of reflectingto see the world only partially, relatively, within the boundaries determined bydevelopment of science and social practice.

This, however, does not mean that absolute truth issome kind of obviously unattainable ideal, to which a personcan only strive, but never reach it. Between

absolute and relative truths there is no abyss,impassable border; its side absolute truth entersinto every objective truth, into every truly scientific into every scientifically based theory. But the objectactive truth contains moments and relativity, not completeness.

In Materialism and Empirio-Criticism, summarizing Marksist doctrine of the relationship between absolute and relative truthny, V. I. Lenin wrote: “From the point of view of modern materialism, i.e. Marxism, historically conditional limits closerof our knowledge to objective, absolute truth, but unconditional butthe existence of this truth is certainly what we are approaching let's go to her. The contours of the picture are historically conditional, but what is certain is that this picture depicts an objectively existing model.Historically conditional is when and under what conditions wemoved in their knowledge of the essence of things before the discovery of alizarion in coal tar or before the discovery of electrons in the atom,but what is certain is that each such discovery is a step forward of "undoubtedly objective knowledge." In a word, historically Every ideology is catchy, but what is certain is that every scientific ideology (unlike, for example, religious) corresponds to objective truth, absolute nature" 1 .

The essence of the Marxist-Leninist doctrine of the absolute and fromrelative truth lies in the fact that it considers the relativephysical truth as a moment, a stage, a stage of cognition of the absolute truth. Therefore, any truly scientific truth isitself at the same time both absolute truth, since it basically correctly reflects a certain side of the objective world, and relative truth, since it reflects this sideobjective reality is incomplete, approximately.

Dialectical-materialistic interpretation of absolute and relativestrong truth has importance to fight against relativism (from lat. relativus - relative), which does not recognize the objectivity of scientific knowledge, exaggerates their relativity, undermines faith in the cognitive abilities of thought cognition and ultimately leads to the denial of the possibility of cognition peace.

But the struggle against relativism does not mean a general denial of the relative nature of this or that truth. V. I. Lenin reemphatically emphasizes that materialist dialectics knows the relativity of our knowledge, but not in the sense of negationobjective truth, but in the sense of the historical conventionality of the limits bringing our knowledge closer to absolute truth.

The Marxist-Leninist doctrine of truth is directed not only against relativism, but also against dogmatists who believe that ourknowledge consists of "eternal" and unchanging truths. It decisively rejects the metaphysical view of truth as a collection of laws.fixed, unchanging provisions that can only be memorizedand apply in all situations. Emphasizing the great importance that laws, concepts, generaltheoretical positions, etc., dialectical materialismat the same time, he notes that they cannot be absolutized. Even suchgeneral propositions, the truth of which has been proven and verified by practicetics, cannot be applied to special cases formally, without taking into account specific conditions of this phenomenon.

Since the world is in a state of constant changenia, development, renewal, then our knowledge about it "can not beabstract, immutable, fit for all time and forall occasions of life. Human cognition is a continuous process of refining old ones and discovering new ones, previouslyunknown aspects of the objective world. To reflect continuous new development of reality, our knowledge must be flexible, mobile, changeable. New, emerging very often does not fit into the framework of old, familiar concepts and ideas. settings. Old truths need to be constantly changedclarifications, reflecting new patterns that are notset in itself is born, new.