Help on Tele2, tariffs, questions

The era of Hellenism (IV century BC - IV century AD)

• 1. Stoicism (Seneca And Marcus Aurelius). Stoicism was based on principle of fatalism. The world is ruled by fishing, everything is predetermined in advance. Carrying out is an inevitable necessity, which is a chain of irreversible causes.
• 2. Epicureanism.

Very often the teachings of Epicurus are distorted. Epicurus' theory is based on the concept "pleasure". The happiness of a person is in getting pleasure, but the meaning of pleasure is the enjoyment of the spirit (for example, art, literature).

Suffering is fear.

“When we are alive, there is no death. When there is death, we are not.”

The soul is a material formation, it is mortal.

3. Skepticism- the basis of this doctrine was the thesis: "Restrain judgment."

No concepts Absolute Knowledge And Absolute Truth. Everything is relative.

4. Neoplatonism (Plotinus/250 - 270 years. AD /)

This doctrine was based principle of emanation("outpouring"), a smooth transition.

Philosophy of early Hellenism

In the Hellenistic period, the person himself, the subject, was of particular interest. Philosophy was designed to somehow orient the Hellenic (Greek - an ancient Greek who lived in the era of Alexander the Great) in a world of ever-new upheavals. This problem was typically solved in the spirit of ancient Greek philosophy, the initial principles of which were now extended to the problem of man and society in order to solve the problem of subjectivity. In this regard, three main philosophical currents Early Hellenism: Stoicism, Epicureanism, Skepticism.

STOICISM. As a philosophical trend, Stoicism has existed since the 3rd century. BC. until the 3rd century AD The main representatives of early Stoicism were Zeno of China, Cleanthes and Chrysippus. Later, Plutarch, Cicero, Seneca, Marcus Aurelius became famous as Stoics.

The physical views of the Stoics are of little originality. It is believed that the body of the world is composed of fire, air, earth and water. the soul of the world is a fiery and airy pneuma, a kind of all-penetrating breath. According to a long ancient tradition, fire was considered by the Stoics to be the main element, of all the elements it is the most pervasive, vital. Thanks to this, the entire Cosmos, including man, is a single fiery organism with its own laws (logos) and fluidity. The main question for the Stoics is to determine the place of man in the cosmos.

After carefully considering the situation, the Stoics come to the conclusion that the laws of being are not subject to man, man is subject to fate, fate. There is nowhere to escape from fate, reality must be accepted as it is, with all its fluidity of bodily properties, which provides diversity human life. Fate, fate can be hated, but the stoic is rather inclined to love it, getting rest within the limits of what is available.

The Stoics seek to discover the meaning of life. The eidos and categories of Plato and Aristotle no longer suit them, they cannot see in them the fluidity of life and its meaning. Meaning is not physical substances, the same fire. But what is the essence of the subjective?

Word, the stoics answer its meaning(lecton). Lekton - meaning - is above all positive and negative judgments, we are talking about judgment in general. Lekton is also carried out in the inner life of a person, creating a state ataraxia, i.e. peace of mind, equanimity. The Stoic is by no means indifferent to everything that happens, on the contrary, he treats everything with maximum attention and interest. But he still understands the world in a certain way, its logos, law, and, in full accordance with it, retains peace of mind. So, the main points of the Stoic picture of the world are as follows:

• 1) Cosmos is a fiery organism;
• 2) a person exists within the framework of cosmic laws, hence his fatalism, fatefulness, a kind of love for both;
• 3) the meaning of the world and man - lekton, the significance of the word, which is neutral both to the mental and to the physical;
• 4) understanding the world inevitably leads to a state of ataraxia, dispassion;
• 5) not only an individual person, but people as a whole constitute an inseparable unity with the Cosmos; The cosmos can and should be considered both as a god and as a world state (thus, the idea of ​​pantheism (nature is God) and the idea of ​​human equality are developed).

EPICOREISM. The largest representatives of Epicureanism are themselves Epicurus And Lucretius Kar. Epicureanism as a philosophical trend existed at the same historical time as Stoicism - this is the period of the 5th - 6th centuries at the turn of the old and new era. Like the Stoics, the Epicureans primarily raise questions of the dispensation and comfort of the individual in the difficult historical conditions of the slave-owning society in the late period of its development. The fire-likeness of the soul is a common idea among the Stoics and Epicureans, but the Stoics see some meaning behind it, and the Epicureans see the basis of sensations. For the Stoics, in the foreground is the mind, consistent with nature, and for the Epicureans, the feeling, consistent with nature. The sensible world is what is of primary interest to the Epicureans. From here the basic ethical principle of the Epicureans is pleasure. The doctrine that puts pleasure at the forefront is called hedonism.

For the Epicureans, the sensible world is the real reality. The world of sensuality is extraordinarily changeable, multiple. Epicurean reality is reflected in the principle of atomicity. The sensible world is changeable, but not so much that it is absolutely continuous. There are extreme forms of feelings, sensible atoms, or, in other words, atoms not in themselves, but in the world of feelings. There are many atoms; Epicureans, in contrast to the Stoics, advocate the primacy of plurality. But then the notion of stoic fate, fate, is called into question. Epicurus puts this very nicely in the form of the idea that atoms can spontaneously lean one way or the other. According to Democritus, the world was formed from the mutual collision of atoms. Epicurus endows atoms with spontaneity, "free will". Atoms move along curves, intertwine and unwind. The idea of ​​stoic rock is coming to an end.

The Epicurean does not have any master over him, there is no need, he has free will. He can retire, indulge in his own pleasures, immerse himself in himself. The epicurean is not afraid of death: "As long as we exist, there is no death; when death is, we are no more". Life is the main pleasure with its beginning and even end. (Dying, Epicurus took a warm bath and asked for wine to be brought to him.)

A person consists of atoms, which provide him with the richness of the world of sensations, where he can always find a comfortable home for himself, refusing to be active, striving to rebuild the world. The Epicurean attitude towards the life world is completely unselfish and at the same time strives to merge with it. If we bring the qualities of the Epicurean sage to the absolute limit, then we will get an idea of ​​​​the gods. They also consist of atoms, but non-decaying atoms, and therefore the gods are immortal. The gods are blessed, they have no need to interfere in the affairs of people and the universe. Yes, this would not give any positive result, because in a world where there is free will, there is not and cannot be sustainable purposeful actions. Therefore, the gods on Earth have nothing to do, Epicurus places them in the interworld space, where they rush about. But Epicurus does not deny the worship of God (he himself visited the temple). This must be understood in the sense that, by honoring the gods, man himself is strengthened in the correctness of his own self-elimination from active practical life on the paths of epicurean ideas. We list the main ones:

• 1) everything consists of atoms, which can spontaneously deviate from rectilinear trajectories;
• 2) a person consists of atoms, which provides him with a wealth of feelings and pleasures;
• 3) the world of feelings is not illusory, it is the main content of the human, everything else, including the ideal-thinking, is closed to sensory life;
• 4) the gods are indifferent to human affairs (this, they say, is evidenced by the presence of evil in the world).
• 5) for a happy life, a person needs three main components: the absence of bodily suffering (aponia), equanimity of the soul (ataraxia), friendship (as an alternative to political and other confrontations).

Skepticism. Skepticism is the hallmark of all ancient philosophy; as an independent philosophical direction, it functions during the period of relevance of Stoicism and Epicureanism. The largest representatives Pyrrho And Sextus Empiricus.

The ancient skeptic rejected the intelligibility of life. To maintain inner peace, a person needs to know a lot from philosophy, but not in order to deny something or, conversely, to affirm (every affirmation is a negation, and, conversely, every negation is an affirmation). The ancient skeptic is by no means a nihilist; he lives as he wants, avoiding in principle the need to evaluate anything. The skeptic is in constant philosophical search, but he is convinced that true knowledge is, in principle, unattainable. Being appears in all the diversity of its fluidity (remember Heraclitus): it seems that there is something definite, but it immediately disappears.

In this regard, the skeptic points to time itself, it is, but it is not there, it is impossible to "grab" it. There is no stable meaning at all, everything is fluid, so live as you want and take life in its immediate reality. He who knows a lot cannot adhere to strictly unambiguous opinions. A skeptic can neither be a judge nor a lawyer. Skeptic Carneades, sent to Rome to petition for the abolition of the tax, one day spoke to the public for the tax, the other day against the tax. It is better for the skeptical sage to be silent. His silence is the philosophical answer to the questions put to him. Refraining from certain judgments, the skeptic remains imperturbable. The silence of the skeptic can be considered a wise way out of the situation, but one cannot but see in it a certain emptiness of thought. We list the main provisions of ancient skepticism:

• 1) the world is fluid, it has no meaning and clear definition;
• 2) every affirmation is at the same time a negation, every "yes" is at the same time a "no"; the true philosophy of skepticism is silence;
• 3) follow the "world of phenomena", keep inner peace.

Antique skepticism in its own way brought to the limit philosophical attempts to cope with the difficulties of life without its logical and ideological understanding. Silence is both a kind of end to the philosophical search, and an indication that new efforts are needed. In this regard, we pass directly to the late Hellenistic ideas, the main content of which was Neoplatonism.

Neoplatonism

The main provisions of Neoplatonism were developed Dam, V adulthood living in Rome.

Neoplatonists sought to give a philosophical picture of everything that exists, including the Cosmos as a whole. It is impossible to understand the life of a subject outside the Cosmos, just as the life of the Cosmos without a subject. Existing is arranged hierarchically: One-Good, Mind, Soul, Matter. The highest place in the hierarchy belongs to the One Good. Matter.

One-Good. The One is truly primordial, encompassing everything at one point. If, according to the Neoplatonists, you recognize the existence of different, for example, reasonable and unreasonable, then above it there is a limit to both, which is no longer either one or the other. The One-Good is achieved not in a rational way, but only as a result of superintelligent ecstasy. It goes without saying that as a result of such ecstasy, the subject escapes from various kinds of earthly difficulties.

The One is, as it were, overflowing with itself, it "poured out", forming the Mind, World Mind. This "outpouring" or emanation is not a material process. It is about essential connection; the essence is everywhere, but is realized through something else. The One exists through Mind.

The World Mind includes numbers and ideas in their systemic interconnected form. Mind is the prototype of all things.

The emanation of Mind, in turn, leads to World Soul which expresses everything animate. The soul produces all living beings. Everything that moves forms the Cosmos. The lowest form of being is matter. By itself, it is not active, inert, it is the recipient of possible forms and meaning.

The main task of a person is to think deeply, to feel his place in the structural hierarchy of being. Good (Good) comes from above, from the One, evil - from below, from matter. Evil is not a being, it has nothing to do with the Good. A person can avoid evil to the extent that he manages to climb the ladder of the immaterial: Soul-Mind-One. The Soul-Mind-United staircase corresponds to the sequence feeling - thought - ecstasy. Here, of course, attention is drawn to ecstasy, which stands above thought. But ecstasy, it should be noted, includes all the richness of the mental and sensual.

Neoplatonists see harmony and beauty everywhere, and the One Good is actually responsible for them. Even chaos is harmonious. As for the life of people, it also, in principle, cannot contradict universal harmony. People are actors, they only carry out, each in their own way, the scenario that is laid down in the World Mind.

The era of Hellenism marks the substantiation of new models of the cosmos and concern for the moral arrangement of people. The main currents of this era - epicureanism, stoicism, skepticism - justify not civic activity and virtue, but personal salvation and equanimity of the soul. How life ideal hence the rejection of the development of fundamental philosophy and the deviation towards ethics, and a very one-sided one, which advocates ways to achieve equanimity.

The school of Stoicism was founded by Zeno of Kition and covers six centuries (from the 3rd century BC to the 3rd century AD). This period is usually divided into three main stages of development: 1) Ancient Stoa (III-II centuries BC) - Zenon, Cleanthes, Chrysippus; 2) Middle Stoya (II-I century BC) - Panetius, Posidonius; 3) Late Stoya - Seneca, Musonius Ruf, Epictetus, Hierocles the Stoic, Marcus Aurelius.

The Stoics believed that the body of the world was composed of fire, air, earth and water. The soul of the world is a fiery and airy pneuma, a kind of all-penetrating breath. Fire was considered the main element of everything. The Stoics united the Cosmos and man into a single fiery organism with its own laws (logos) and fluidity. The main question of the philosophy of the Stoics is the determination of the place of man in the Cosmos. But not only man, but people as a whole constitute an inseparable unity with the Cosmos, which can and should be considered both as a god and as a world state (here the idea of ​​nomtheism is developing - “nature is you” and the idea of ​​human equality). The laws of being are not subject to man, he is subject to fate, from which there is nowhere to escape, therefore, reality must be accepted as it is.

The essence of the subjective, according to the Stoics, is the word, its semantic meaning (lectures). This is the meaning of the world and man. Understanding the world inevitably leads to a state of ataraxia and dispassion.

The Stoics identified a number of important philosophical problems: If a person is subject to various kinds of laws, physical, biological, social, then to what extent is he free? How does he feel about everything that limits him? The school of Epicureanism (founder - Epicurus, main follower - Lucretius Carus) existed in the period from the 5th century. BC. according to the II century. AD

The main issues of Epicureanism are the problems of dispensation, comfort of the individual in difficult historical conditions. At the forefront are sensations consistent with nature (for the Stoics - the mind), where everything consists of atoms, which can spontaneously deviate from linear trajectories. Man also consists of atoms, which provides him with a wealth of feelings and pleasures. The gods are immortal, because. are made up of indestructible atoms. The gods are indifferent to human affairs (this is evidenced by the presence of evil in the world and free will).

The main ethical principle of the school of Epicurus is pleasure (the doctrine is hedonism), we are talking about a balanced state. The sensual world is a reality, it is changeable and multiple. The soul is firelike, the basis of sensations. The world of feelings is not illusory, it is the main content of the human, everything else, incl. the ideal-thinking "closes" on sensory life. The Epicurean is not afraid of death: “As long as we exist, there is no death; when death is, we are no more.” Life is the main pleasure for the epicurean. For a happy life, a person needs three main components: the absence of bodily suffering, equanimity of the soul, friendship.

The school of skepticism (3rd century BC - 2nd century AD) was founded by Pyrrho of Ellis, whose ideas were supported by Timon of Phlius, and the main follower was Sextus Empiricus. Skeptics rejected the knowability of life, arguing that true knowledge, in principle, is unattainable. Being appears in all the diversity of its fluidity: it seems that there is something definite, but it immediately disappears. The world is fluid, it has no meaning and no clear definition. There is no stable meaning at all: every affirmation is, at the same time, a negation, every “yes” is, at the same time, “no”. The true philosophy of skepticism is silence, following the “world of phenomena”, maintaining inner peace. A skeptic cannot be either a judge or a lawyer, because judgments are reversible.

12. Philosophy of the Middle Ages (scholasticism: nominalism and realism).

The main development of scholastic philosophy was the writings of Augustine the Blessed, along with the universal triad of the Neoplatonist Plotinus - one, mind, soul. The origins of scholasticism go back to late antique philosophy (Proclus), develops during the rise of feudal civilization and papal authority(Anselm of Canterbury).

Scholasticism (from the Greek school) is a medieval Christian philosophy that dominated school teaching and is entirely dependent on theology (the totality of religious doctrines about the essence and actions of God). Substantiation, protection and systematization of unshakable religious dogmas in an abstract, logical way - such was the main task of scholasticism. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274) is considered the creator of Catholic theology and systematizer of scholasticism - “The Sum of Theology”, “The Sum of Philosophy”, “The Sum against the Gentiles”.

In the ontology of Thomas Aquinas, being is considered both as possible and as real. Being is the existence of individual things, which is substance. Along with such categories as possibility and reality, Thomas Aquinas introduces the categories of matter and form. At the same time, matter is considered as a possibility, and form as a reality. Nothing material without a form does not exist, and the form depends on the “form of all forms” - God. God is a purely spiritual being. The union of matter with form is necessary only for the corporeal world.

The socio-philosophical views of Thomas Aquinas deserve attention. He argued that personality is “the noblest thing in all rational nature” phenomenon. It is characterized by intellect, feelings and will. The intellect is superior to the will. In his essay “On the Rule of Sovereigns”, he considers a person primarily as a social being, and the state as an organization that cares about the welfare of the people. He connects the essence of power with morality, in particular, with goodness and justice, and even (with reservations) speaks of the right of the people to oppose unjust government.

Thomas Aquinas also proposes to consider the problem of two laws: the “natural law”, which God put into the minds and hearts of people, and the “divine law”, which determines the superiority of the church over the state and civil society, because earthly life It is only a preparation for the future spiritual life.

The philosophy of Thomas Aquinas became the basis of neo-Thomism, which is one of the most powerful currents in modern philosophical thought.

In the XI century. a struggle unfolds in scholastic philosophy itself between nominalism and realism. Initially, a truly scholastic question was posed: How to understand - God is one, but trinity in persons: God the father, God the son and God the holy spirit? However, the unfolding controversy went far beyond the bounds of this issue and acquired a truly philosophical character: it actually resulted in an examination of the dialectics of the individual and the general.

Nominalism (name, purpose) - philosophy, which denies the ontological meaning of universals ( general concepts), i.e. asserting that universals do not exist in reality, but only in thinking. The nominalists argued that "universals are names after things." Only single things are real, for example, people, but “man in general” or “house in general” are just words or names with the help of which people generalize single objects into a genus. Moderate nominalists allowed the existence of the general in human concepts as a reflection of similarities in single things.

The most prominent nominalist Occom argued that only individual individuals can be the object of knowledge. intuitive knowledge fixes their real existence, and abstract knowledge clarifies the relationship between terms that act as concepts about objects. Thus, nominalism was a kind of expression of a materialistic solution to the problem of the connection between the general and the individual.

Realism (material, real) is a philosophical trend that recognizes a reality lying outside consciousness, interpreted as the existence of individual objects. Realists believed that universals: “a person in general”, “a house in general” really exist, regardless of consciousness, they are some kind of spiritual essence or prototypes of individual things. Universals, they argued, exist before things and give rise to things. This extreme realism had its source in Plato's doctrine of the "world of ideas" and the "world of things."

Medieval realism tried to comprehend the problems of the general, not the individual, without resolving the contradictions caused by the interpretation of general concepts as abstractions preceding the generalizing activity of cognition.

Thus, the dispute between realists and nominalists was truly philosophical, because. it actually discussed the problems of the nature of the individual and the general, their dialectics.

Hellenistic philosophy is the last period in the development of the philosophy of ancient Greece, following Aristotle. The main features of Hellenistic philosophy include an ethical orientation and adaptation of Eastern religious moments.

The most famous representatives of the Cynics were Socrates' student Antisthenes (c. 450 - c. 360 BC) and his student Diogenes (c. 400 - c. 325 BC). Antisthenes advocated the simplification of life, believed that philosophy should be closer to nature. He considered "subtle" sophistication worthless. According to him, neither government nor state should exist. Antisthenes despised wealth and luxury.

Antisthenes was glorified by his disciple Diogenes. Many traditions, legends and amusing incidents associated with this philosopher have been preserved. It is believed that Diogenes lived in a barrel. He, like his teacher, hated wealth, considering it an accidental phenomenon. Reason for the Cynics was the only value. Diogenes is considered the first adherent of cosmopolitanism, he did not recognize any borders and states, considering man to be the highest good. The world, according to Diogenes, is very bad, so you need to learn how to live separately from it, getting rid of everything that comes with it.

: Skepticism

Skepticism is a trend in philosophy that arose under the influence of ancient philosophy based on the idea of ​​the fluidity of everything that exists (“everything flows, everything changes”). In particular, Democritus argued that honey is no more sweet than bitter, in addition, it is constantly changing. Any thing, from the point of view of skeptics, "is this no more than that." Skeptics also noted the difference between sensory perception and thinking. Therefore, it makes no sense to say anything exactly. It is better to speak, for example, like this: “It seems to me that the food is sweet.” Abstaining from categorical judgments leads to equanimity, the ideal for a sage.

The founder of skepticism is Pyrrho (360-270 BC). Democritus, as well as the ascetics and sectarians with whom Pyrrho dealt with in the Asian campaign of Alexander the Great, had a strong influence on his views. One of the central ideas of Pyrrho's philosophy is the desire for serenity (ataraxia). Pyrrho did not write essays, but expressed his ideas orally.

Epicureanism

The most prominent representatives of Epicureanism are Epicurus (341-270 BC) and Lucretius Carus (c. 99 - 55 BC). Epicurus developed the ideas of atomism. He could not accept the causality that reigned in the world of atoms of Democritus, according to which everything was created as a result of "collisions" and "bounces" of atoms. Epicurus ascribes to atoms the ability to "deviate" as a result of the movement of a "coherent chain." He actually attributes a certain will to the atoms, due to which the world is not chaotic. Plutarch calls the fact of manifestation of will and "rejection of atoms" a case. Thus it turns out that "there is no need for necessity." Epicurus believes that life and death are equally not terrible for the sage: “As long as we exist, there is no death; when death is, we are no more.” Epicurus considers knowledge as the result of comprehension of sensory experience. The central idea of ​​the ethical teaching of Epicurus is the desire for pleasure (the principle of hedonism), often contemplative. According to Epicurus, the highest good for the philosopher is a constant feeling of pleasure, that is, deliverance from suffering. To do this, he calls to live rationally and morally, to show respect for the gods.

Lucretius is a philosopher, politician and poet, the author of the poem "On the Nature of Things", in which he gracefully describes the elusive effect of "eidols" emitted by atoms on the senses, which causes feelings and emotions in people. According to Lucretius, atoms are not minimal fractional particles of matter, but a kind of creative images, material for nature. Just like Epicurus, he recognizes the existence of gods and the soul, considering it as a collection of the smoothest particles.

: Stoicism

Stoicism as an approach in philosophy has existed since the III century. BC e. until the 3rd century n. e. The works of the early Stoics (Zeno of Kitia, Chrysippus) have come down to us incomplete, the later ones (I, II centuries Plutarch, Cicero, Seneca, Marcus Aurelius) - in the form of separate surviving works.

The ideal of a Stoic is an imperturbable, even "insensitive" sage, free from passions. The Stoics paid much attention to the phenomenon of will in their teachings. Therefore, Socrates had a strong influence on the teachings of the Stoics, who courageously endured his trial and execution. According to Chrysippus, the entire universe consists of a single spiritual feminine-tender matter - ether. Marcus Aurelius, the Roman emperor, believed that everything in the world is interconnected, develops according to some kind of law, under the guidance of divine providence. There is a single world soul that controls all things. This idea sounds especially clear in the writings of Seneca, for whom freedom is the highest ideal.

The philosophy of the early Stoics is based on the fact that the world consists of four elements: earth, water, fire and air. I must say that the Stoics believed in predictions and astrology. Fire and air were considered the basis of the universe. The law by which fire passes into other elements, after Heraclitus, was called the Logos. Fate for the Stoics is the Logos of the Cosmos: everything in the world is ordered by it. Marcus Aurelius also believed that all people are equal from birth and respected forms of government in which the entire population of the country is involved in governing the country. During his reign, the position of women and slaves was improved. In addition, the Stoics paid great attention to grammar.

Hellenistic period (338 BC - 30 AD). The term "Hellenism" was introduced by the German historian J. G. Dreizen.

There are three main philosophical currents of early Hellenism: Stoicism, Epicureanism and Skepticism.

Stoicism (Zeno of China, Cleanthes and Christipus - early, Plutarch, Cicero, Marcus Aurelius - late). The Stoics believed that the laws of being are not subject to man, man is subject to fate, from which you cannot escape, therefore reality must be accepted as it is with all its fluidity, variability and diversity.

Epicureanism (Epicurus, Titus Lucretius Car). The basic ethical principle of the Epicureans is pleasure. For them, the main thing is the sensual world, this is, in their opinion, the real reality. It is unusually changeable, multiple, but there are also extreme forms of feelings - sensual atoms, which are endowed with "free will". There are many of them, they can deviate in any direction. This undermines the Stoic assertion of fate, fate. The Epicurean has free will, he can retire, indulge in his own pleasures, immerse himself in himself. He is not afraid of death. Life is the main pleasure with its beginning and even end. The doctrine centered on pleasure is called hedonism.

Skepticism (Pyrrho, Sextus Empiricus). Skeptics rejected the cognizability of the world. Their theory was as follows:

the world is fluid, it has no meaning and clear definition;

every affirmation is at the same time a negation; every "yes" is at the same time a "no". Refraining from certain judgments, the skeptic remains imperturbable. Skepticism in its own way brought philosophical attempts to cope with the difficulties of life without its logical and ideological comprehension to the limit. Silence is both a kind of end to philosophical search and an indication that new efforts are needed.

Neoplatonism (235-284) refers to late Hellenism. Its main provisions were developed by Plotinus, who lived in adulthood in Rome. He was influenced by the teachings of Plato and Aristotle. Plotinus brought Plato's contempt for the physical world of the senses, for everyday life, to the extreme, approaching in this christian religion. For Christianity and Platonism, the theory of the existence of higher world, which has absolute priority over the lowest. Neoplatonism is a doctrine of otherworldliness, super-reason of the origin of all things and of mystical ecstasy as a means of approaching this origin. The peculiarity of Plotinus' system is that he builds his universe not from the bottom up, but, on the contrary, from the top down. The highest place in the hierarchy belongs to the Good. The one good is truly primordial, encompassing everything at one point. The only good is achieved not in a rational way, but through superintelligent ecstasy; as a result of such ecstasy, the subject escapes from various kinds of earthly difficulties. The One exists through the World Mind, which is the prototype of all things. Emanation of the Mind leads to the World Soul. She is the expression of everything animate, producing all living beings. Matter is the lowest form of being. In itself, it is inert, but it has the ability to take on various forms and meanings. The task of a person is to think deeply and realize his place in the structural hierarchy of being. Good comes from above from the One, evil - from below from matter.

1. Ancient philosophy of the Roman period.

From the beginning of the III century BC. e. in the Mediterranean region, the influence of Rome is significantly increased, which from an urban republic becomes a strong power. In the II century. BC e. he already owns a large part ancient world. The cities of mainland Greece also fall under its economic and political influence. Thus, the penetration of Greek culture, an integral part of which was philosophy, begins in Rome. Roman culture and education developed under completely different conditions than those that had been several centuries earlier in Greece. Roman campaigns, directed in all directions of the then known world (on the one hand, in the area of ​​mature civilizations of the ancient world, and on the other hand, on the territory of "barbarian" tribes), form a broad framework for the formation of Roman thinking. The natural and technical sciences developed successfully, and the political and legal sciences reached unprecedented proportions.

Roman culture is characterized by the desire to enrich itself with the best of what Rome faces, striving for world domination. Therefore, it is logical that Roman philosophy is also formed under the decisive influence of Greek, in particular Hellenistic, philosophical thinking. II century BC).

Approximately since that time, three philosophical trends have been developing in Rome, which were already formed in Hellenistic Greece - Stoicism, Epicureanism and Skepticism.

1) Roman Epicureanism

a) Titus Lucretius Car

Titus Lucretius Car ( OK. 99–55 BC e.) - an ancient Roman poet and thinker, philosopher-educator. Almost nothing is known about his life. In all likelihood, he received his philosophical education at the Epicurean school of Naples. He wrote a philosophical poem "On the Nature of Things", which has completely come down to us. The poem was not published during the author's lifetime. After the death of Titus Lucretius Cara, the poem was edited and published by Quintus Cicero (brother of the famous orator, politician and philosopher).

As a contemporary of Julius Caesar, Lucretius observed the deep crisis of republican Rome. The external wars that he waged, which were essentially colonial in nature, were combined with numerous internal conflicts and political strife, uprisings of Italian, Spanish tribes and slaves. This undermined the foundations of Roman civilization and, ultimately, contributed to its disintegration and complete collapse. The political struggle was waged with unprecedented ferocity and was accompanied by mass casualties, and a military dictatorship was born. Such a general historical background, along with the ideas of Epicurus, had a great influence on the nature of the philosophical views of Lucretius and the content of his poem. Titus Lucretius Car developed Epicureanism in its two forms - in the form of atomism and moral teaching.

The poem of Lucretius consists of six books. The first two describe the atomistic system of the universe. The third book is devoted to the teachings of Epicurus about the soul, it provides evidence that the soul is mortal. In the fourth book - a statement of questions about man and sensory perceptions, in which Lucretius sees the basis of human knowledge. In the fifth book - questions of cosmogony, an explanation of the origin of the sky, the sea, celestial bodies and living beings. The sixth is an explanation of the phenomena and horrors of nature that fall on man.

Materialism of Titus Lucretius Kara

There are an infinite number of worlds and they all consist of infinitely small bodies (seeds of things). He revealed the natural origin of man: man developed from a fertilized seed. As cereals grow from grains, so the smallest bodies are the beginning of all beginnings. For the improvement of man was the improvement of his main weapon - the hand. Worlds moving change in time.

Lucretius expressed the idea of ​​the eternity of matter. Things are temporary, they arise and disappear disintegrating into atoms - their primary constituents. Atoms are eternal, and their number in the universe always remains the same. From this followed the conclusion about the eternity of matter, which Lucretius identified with atoms.

About the soul

His poem, written in an era of crises, carries a life-affirming charge that helps to find peace of mind in the changing world of non-eternal people and things.

In his opinion, many "ulcers deep lives"(greed, vanity, crime, sacrifices)" food is found in the horror of death. fears of it are in vain, and people will be able to get rid of vicious aspirations.

Lucretius accepted Epicurean arguments against the immortality of the soul and significantly supplemented them. For a man, death is nothing, he says after Epicurus: when he is, it is not yet there; when it is, he is no more; and for the universe, death is all the more nothing: after all, matter is eternal, and from the same atoms of which we are composed, other bodies and other worlds will be composed again and again. The body, the philosopher believed, is a vessel of the soul, and if it is damaged, then the soul "scatters everything, and consequently, it dies." One should not think, wrote Lucretius, that the soul after death moves to another body, because "we do not remember the life of the past", babies are born unreasonable, and the "morals" of animals do not mix - each of them behaves according to his body.

To die is no more terrible than not to be born at all, so is it necessary to be afraid of eternal non-existence after death, if it is no worse than “the part of eternal time that passed before our birth”, which for us was “more serene than any sleep”? In view of the eternity of our past and future non-existence, it would be foolish to be afraid of premature death, because "even by extending life it is impossible to reduce the duration of death in any way and achieve its reduction so that we can stay less in a state of death."

Lucretius used the image of the mythical Sisyphus in his poem, speaking of the futility of the irrepressible thirst for life. People are not able to achieve complete satisfaction of their desires, just as Sisyphus cannot establish a stone on the top of a mountain. Living is like pouring water into a broken vessel, it will never be filled to the brim. It is in vain to strive for fame, wealth, power, "enduring hard work at the same time," - the Sisyphean stone, having reached the top, will again rush down; and Sisyphus "always amazed and gloomy leaves"5.

In the end, Lucretius's reasoning boils down to the fact that death is no more terrible than life, so fears of it are in vain. Live while you live, and do not be tormented by worries about the impending non-existence.

This philosophical and historical work had a wide influence on the development of the educational and humanistic tradition, especially in the Renaissance and in the New Age.

Many judgments of Lucretius about life and death anticipate those ideas that, after almost two millennia, began to develop in the philosophy of A. Schopenhauer, in the teachings of the Russian thinker N.F. Fedorov, in the work of the French existentialist L. Camus. So, his considerations that new generations of people are born at the expense of the death of the previous ones, using their substances, are consonant with the views of N.F. Fedorov

5 Excerpts from the third book of Lucretius's poem "On the Nature of Things" are used.

Conclusions:

Titus Lucretius Car

* developed Epicureanism in its two forms - in the form of atomism and moral teaching

* expressed the idea of ​​the eternity of matter and the temporality of things.

* believed that the body is a vessel of the soul, and if it dies, then the soul also dies.

* accepted the Epicurean arguments of the fear of death and significantly supplemented them. He said that dying is no worse than not being born at all, so is it necessary to be afraid of eternal non-existence after death, if it is no worse than the one that passed before our birth.

* believed that death is no more terrible than life, so fears of it are in vain. It is necessary to live without being tormented by worries about the impending non-existence.

11. Formation of the Christian philosophical tradition. The problem of faith and reason in the teachings of K.S. Tertullian and A. Augustine.

For Hellenistic period(the period of the crisis of the policy and the formation of large states in Asia and Africa under the rule of the Greeks and led by the associates of Alexander the Great and their descendants) is characterized by:

The spread of the anti-social philosophy of the Cynics;

The origin of the Stoic direction of philosophy;

The activity of "Socratic" philosophical schools: Plato's Academy, Aristotle's Lyceum, the Cyrenian school (Cyrenaicists), etc.;

Philosophy of Epicurus, etc.

Distinctive features Hellenistic philosophy:

The crisis of ancient moral and philosophical values;

Decreased fear of gods and other supernatural forces, respect for them;

Search for physical and spiritual support in oneself;

The desire to detach from reality;

The predominance of a materialistic view of the world (Epicurus);

Recognition as the highest good - happiness and pleasure of an individual

human (physical - Cyrenaic, moral - Epicurus).

Epicurus (341 -270 BC) - Greek philosopher - materialist and atheite of the Hellenistic era. E. denied the intervention of the gods in the affairs of the world and proceeded from the recognition of the eternity of matter, which has an internal source of motion. Reviving the atomism of Leucippus-Democritus, E. introduces original changes into it: to explain the possibility of a collision of atoms moving in an empty

space at the same speed, he introduces the concept of spontaneous (internal

conditioned) "deviation" of the atom from a straight line. This is the basis for more

a deep look at the relationship between necessity and chance, a step forward in

compared with the mechanical determinism of Democritus. In the theory of knowledge E. -

sensualist. Feelings in themselves are always true, because come from an objective

reality; errors arise from the interpretation of sensations. The emergence of sensations

E. explains naively materialistically: from the surface of bodies comes a continuous

a stream of tiny particles, outflows, penetrating the senses and causing

images of things. Knowledge aims to free man from ignorance and

superstition, fear of the gods and death, without which happiness is impossible. In ethics

E. substantiates reasonable pleasure, which is based on

the individualistic ideal of avoiding suffering and achieving a calm and

joyful state of mind. The most reasonable for a person is

activity, and sometimes, ataraxia. The materialistic doctrine of E. was distorted in

idealistic philosophy(eg Hegel).

TO stoics in Greece belonged Zeno from Kition (c. 333 - c. 262 BC), Panetius of Rhodes (II century BC), Posidonius (late II - I century BC) and others The Stoic school gained great popularity in Ancient Rome, where its most prominent representatives were Seneca (c. 4 BC - 65 AD), his student Epictetus (c. 50 - c. 140) and Emperor Marcus Aurelius (121-180). Philosophy for the Stoics - not just science, but above all life path, life wisdom. Only philosophy is able to teach a person to maintain self-control and dignity in a difficult situation that developed in the era of Hellenism. The Stoics consider freedom from the power of the outside world over a person to be the dignity of a sage; his strength lies in the fact that he is not a slave to his own passions. A sage cannot aspire to sense gratification. A real sage, according to the Stoics, is not even afraid of death; It is from the Stoics that the understanding of philosophy as the science of dying comes. Here the model for the Stoics was Socrates. However, the similarity of the Stoics with Socrates is only that they build their ethics on knowledge. But, unlike Socrates, they seek virtue not for the sake of happiness, but for the sake of peace and serenity, indifference to everything external. This indifference they call apathy (dispassion). Dispassion is their ethical ideal. The mood of the Stoics is pessimistic; such a mood is well conveyed by A. S. Pushkin: There is no happiness in the world, but there is peace and will. To achieve inner peace and dispassion means to learn to completely control yourself, to determine your actions not by circumstances, but only by reason. The demands of reason are immutable, for they are in accordance with nature. By the latter, the Stoics understand both external nature and the nature of man himself. Nature for a Stoic is fate, or fate: make peace with fate, do not resist it - this is one of the commandments of Seneca. SKEPTICISM (from the Greek “skepticism” - research, consideration) - in ancient philosophy, a trend whose representatives did not put forward any positive doctrine about the world and man and did not assert the possibility of true knowledge, but refrained from making a final judgment about all this. Skeptics formulated three main philosophical questions: what is the nature of things? How should we treat them? What benefit do we get from such an attitude? And they answered them: the nature of things cannot be known to us; therefore one should refrain from judgments from questions of truth; equanimity of spirit (“ataraxia”) should become a consequence of such an attitude. The conclusion about the unknowability of the nature of things is made on the basis of the equal proof of opposing judgments about this world and the impossibility of recognizing one judgment as more reliable than another. Thus, the consequence of theoretical skepticism about the issues of the structure of the world and its knowledge is a meaningful ethical conclusion about the ideal of practical behavior. Thus, although skeptics did not directly link the achievement of happiness from the depth theoretical knowledge, nevertheless remained within the framework of traditional ancient rationalism: the achievement of an ethical ideal is directly correlated with an understanding of the boundaries of theoretical knowledge.

For Neoplatonists (in addition to Plotinus, Iamblichus, 245 - c. 330, and Proclus, 412-485 are considered the main representatives of this trend) the whole world appears as a hierarchical system in which each lower level owes its existence to the highest. At the very top of this ladder one is placed (it is God, it is also good, or, in other words, that which is on the other side of all that exists). The One is the cause (first of all - the target) of all being (everything that exists exists insofar as it strives for the One, or for the good); it itself does not participate in being and therefore is incomprehensible either for the mind or for the word - nothing can be said about God. The second stage is the mind as such and the intelligible entities in it - ideas; it is pure being generated by the one (for thinking and being in the Platonic tradition are identical). Below is the third step - the soul; it is no longer one, like the mind, but divided between living bodies (the soul of the cosmos, for the cosmos for the Platonists is a living being, the souls of demons, people, animals, plants); in addition, it moves: the soul is the source of all movement and, consequently, of all excitements and passions. Even lower - the fourth step - the body. Just as the soul receives its best properties - rationality, harmony - from the mind, so the body receives form thanks to the soul; its other qualities - lifelessness, inertia, inertness - are akin to matter. Matter, or the subject, the substratum of sensible things, is inertness itself, inertia, lack of quality as such. Matter does not exist; it is in no way involved in the mind, i.e., being; therefore it also cannot be comprehended by the mind and the word. We learn about its presence in a purely negative way: if we take away their form from all bodies (i.e., all their somewhat certain characteristics: quality, quantity, position, etc.), then what remains will be matter. Man in the system of Neoplatonic philosophy, it was conceived, respectively, as a union of the divine, self-identical mind with an inert body through the soul; it is natural that the goal and meaning of life in this case is to free your mind, spirit from the shackles of matter, or body, in order to ultimately completely separate from it and merge with one great mind. It is clear that the source of all evil is material and bodily; the source of good is intelligible, sublime knowledge, philosophy. A person must learn to think, on the one hand, and to subdue his body through exercises, austerities, on the other.